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| Библиотека iknigi.net
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| Денис Александрович Шевчук
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| Внешнеторговый международный контракт: типовой образец, пример контракта, экономические и юридические аспекты
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Денис Александрович Шевчук
Внешнеторговый международный контракт: типовой образец, пример контракта, экономические и юридические аспекты
PREFACE
Один из способов тренировать ин. язык – обучать иностранцев русскому языку, русской литературе, философии и истории России (для чего стоит повышать их знание).
Денис Шевчук
Замечено, что многие люди не знают элементарных правил русского языка, например:
1. Количество кавычек всегда должно быть четным, как скобки в математике.
Рядом стоящие кавычки могут быть двух видов – "…" и «…» (лапки и елочки).
Правильно: "слова «слова»" или «слова "слова"»
Неправильно: «слова»» и "слова "слова"
Эти ошибки есть даже в названиях крупных фирм и некоторых статьях и книжках.
2. Если в конце предложения есть информация в скобках, точка ставится после скобок, не ставится перед скобками и внутри перед закрывающей скобкой.
Правильно: слова (слова).
Неправильно: слова. (слова.)
Менеджер – наемный управленец, начальник!
Если у вас нет ни одного подчиненного – вы не менеджер,
а максимум специалист!
Денис Шевчук
What should normally be included in a sale contract and how?It would be no exaggeration to say that those with the right answers have got the key to success in the world of business.Despite (or probably due to?)the significance and complexity of this management skill and of the appropriate language,Business English teaching materials on this subject are scarce if any.
This book deals with contractual issues of interest to all companies and business people involved in international trade.It has been compiled to meet the practical language needs of professional adults who require contractual English for work and who are serious about their business.The book is designed to illustrate and clarify the English of contracts for the international sale of goods with special emphasis on the legal aspects of this type of contract.Its objective is to provide students with the appropriate English for drafting sale contracts.
The topics covered in the book are:
sources of law governing contracts for the international sale of goods (the 1980 Vienna Convention,the Civil Code of the Russian Federation)
world-wide contractual standards (Incoterms,the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts,the ICC Model International Sale Contract).
Excerpts from these documents endow the book with immediate practicability.
The book covers words and expressions that frequently occur and recur in sources of law governing contracts for the international sale of goods as well as in non-legislative world-wide contractual standards.Some of these words and collocations appear much more often in such documents than elsewhere.Others occur more generally,but are used in these documents in a particular way.Vocabulary Notes at the back of the book (Language Focus,Part 1)show what these words and collocations mean,how they are used and how they relate to each other.Exercises in Language Focus are based on the latest research into the Lexical Approach in teaching International Business English.The exercises in this section (Language Focus,Part 2)help students acquire the ability to combine words,many of which they already know,into the phrases and expressions which are the basis of contractual English.
This book can be used by students alone or in class.We strongly advise that the study of the book be followed up by a business game on drafting a sale contract.
Рекомендуем для повторения английского языка книгу Шевчук Д.А. Английский язык. Ускоренный курс: средний уровень. – М: Аст: Восток – Запад, 2007.
Дополнительно рекомендуем электронные книги (полный список в конце книги)
1. Шевчук Денис. Английский язык: самоучитель
2. Шевчук Денис. Английский для экономистов (учебник английского языка)
3. Шевчук Денис. Бизнес английский: курс бизнес английского
4. Шевчук Денис. Деловой английский: бизнес английский язык
5. Шевчук Денис. Методика изучения иностранного языка (ускоренное изучение)
6. Шевчук Денис. Письмо на английском языке: примеры, как писать (личное, деловое, резюме, готовые письма как образец)
7. Шевчук Денис. Деловой английский язык: стандартные фразы на английском
8. Шевчук Денис. Практическая и теоретическая грамматика английского языка (английская грамматика)
Электронные книги Шевчука Дениса можно скачать на сайте ЛитРес (litres.ru) по ссылке http://www.litres.ru/pages/biblio_authors/?subject=61041&lfrom=102
INTRODUCTION
The global economy has given businesses broader access than ever before to markets all over the world. Goods are sold in more countries, in larger quantities, and in greater variety. But as the volume and complexity of international sales increase, so do possibilities for misunderstandings and costly disputes if sales contracts are not adequately drafted.
Contracts are normally governed by a particular domestic law the choice of which is settled by agreement of the parties. Frequently, parties to a contract are unaware of the various laws and trading practices of their respective countries.
In order to remedy these problems, attempts have been made for the unification of rules relating to contracts for the international sale of goods. Efforts towards the international unification of contract law have essentially taken the form of binding instruments such as international conventions.
The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Vienna, 1980 is based on the assumption that uniform law, even after its incorporation into the various national legal systems, only formally becomes an integral part of the latter, whereas from a substantive point of view it does not lose its original character of a special body of law autonomously developed at the international level and intended to be applied in a uniform manner throughout the world.
Parties to international contracts of sale may also agree that their contract be governed by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts drawn up by the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law in Rome in 1994. The UNIDROIT Principles are a balanced set of rules designed for use throughout the world irrespective of the legal traditions and the economic and political conditions of the countries in which they are to be applied.
In regard to substance, the UNIDROIT Principles are sufficiently flexible to take account of the constantly changing circumstances caused by technological and economic developments that affect cross-border trade practice. At the same time they attempt to ensure fairness in international commercial relations by expressly stating the general duty of the parties to act in accordance with good faith and fair dealing and, in a number of specific instances, imposing standards of reasonable behaviour.
When drawing up a contract, buyer and seller may also refer to one of the ICC Incoterms to be sure that respective responsibilities are simply and reliably defined. By so doing they eliminate any possibility of misunderstanding and subsequent dispute.
One should also mention further development of international unification of commercial practices through model clauses or even model contracts formulated by leading experts in the field of contract law and international trade law as well as interested business circles on the basis of current trade practices. The ICC Model International Sale Contract (ICC publication № 556) was first published in 1997.
Московский государственный университет геодезии и картографии (МИИГАиК)
Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK)
[москоу стэйт юнивёсити ов джиодэзи энд картографи]
THE FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND LAND MANAGEMENT graduates specialists in the field of land and real-property relations:
* Urban Cadastre trains specialists in land accounting, assessment and registration;
* Organization Management trains Students in marketing and urban management, land property, operations with real estate and its insurance.
* Public and Municipal Management provides vocational training in solving problems of control, monitoring, using and protection of urban territories;
* Finance and Crediting, where students undergo training in the fields of financing activities related to real property.
THE HUMANITARIAN FACULTY provides vocational training in Jurisprudence, graduating specialists in the field of civil and criminal law, Linguistic branch.
Besides, the faculty trains specialists in Architecture, who master architectural engineering and landscape design. Training in this specialty is preceded with 1 year`s study at preparatory courses.
I am studying English at the Linguistic branch (THE HUMANITARIAN FACULTY) of Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK).
Я изучаю английский язык на Лингвистическом отделении (Гуманитарный факультет) Московского Государственного Университета Геодезии и Картографии (МИИГАиК).
Students can also get bachelor’s degree in the fields of Optoengineering, Geodesy, Land Use and Urban Cadastre while studying at the EVENING FACULTY where foreign citizens are admitted.
Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK) was established in 1779 and it is the center of higher geodetic education in Russia and the largest educational institution of this type in Europe.
Основанный 14 мая 1779 года по повелению императрицы Екатерины II Великой при Межевой канцелярии в Москве, как Землемерная школа, наш Вуз прошел славный путь от Константиновского межевого института до Московского института инженеров геодезии аэрофотосъемки и картографии (в 1993 году МИИГАиК был преобразован в Московский государственный университет геодезии и картографии).
В настоящее время в составе Московского государственного университета геодезии и картографии 7 дневных факультетов: геодезический, картографический, аэрокосмических съемок и фотограмметрии, оптического приборостроения, экономики и управления территориями, гуманитарный факультет, факультет прикладной космонавтики, а также заочный и вечерний факультеты.
Check Questions
What are the sources of law governing contracts for the international sale of goods?
On what assumption is the 1980 Vienna Convention based?
What documents provide a system of rules especially tailored to the needs of international commercial transactions?
I. INTERNATIONAL RULES RELATING TO CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS
SOURCES OF LAW GOVERNING CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS
RUSSIAN LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, article 15(4) and article 7(1) of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (CC RF) Russia’s international agreements form an integral part of its legal system.
В соответствии с Конституцией Российской Федерации (п.4 ст.15)и соответствующим ей правилом Гражданского Кодекса Российской Федерации (ГК РФ)(п.1 ст.7)международные договоры Российской Федерации являются частью ее правовой системы.
Article 7(2) CC RF also stipulates that if an international treaty of the Russian Federation has established rules other than those provided by civil legislation, the rules of the international treaty shall apply.
Согласно п.2 ст.7 ГК РФ, если международным договором Российской Федерации установлены иные правила, чем предусмотренные законом, то применяются правила международного договора.
The general rule is that provisions in an international agreement itself should determine whether to apply CC RF provisions instead of those formulated in the international agreement, or whether to apply the CC RF as a subsidiary statute when the international agreement contains gaps and when Russian legislation is the governing law.
Общее правило состоит в том, что положения самого международного договора определяют возможность применения положений ГК РФ вместо положений международного договора или в качестве дополнительного статуса, в последнем случае – для восполнения пробелов, имеющихся в международном договоре.
Check Questions
What is the legal status of international agreements under Russian law?
What law shall apply if an international treaty of the Russian Federation has established rules other than those provided by civil legislation?
UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS,VIENNA,1980
In relation to the 1980 Vienna Convention, if an international contract of sale falls under its sphere of operation, the application of national civil legislation is permitted if the parties excluded the application of the 1980 Vienna Convention in full or in part or derogated from any of its provisions. According to article 6 of the Vienna Convention "the parties may exclude the application of this Convention or, subject to article 12, derogate from or vary the effect of any of its provisions". It follows from this that the 1980 Vienna Convention is dispositive in character.
Что касается Венской конвенции 1980 года, то если соответствующий договор международной купли-продажи подпадает под сферу ее действия, применение национального гражданского законодательства допускается, когда стороны договора полностью или в соответствующей части исключили применение Венской конвенции 1980 года. Ее статья 6 гласит: "Стороны могут исключить применение настоящей Конвенции либо, при условии соблюдения статьи 12, отступить от любого из ее положений или изменить его действие".Из этого следует, что Венская конвенция 1980 года носит диспозитивный характер.
It should also be noted that when matters governed by the 1980 Vienna Convention are not expressly settled and cannot be settled in conformity with the general principles on which the 1980 Vienna Convention is based, these matters are subject to applicable Russian civil legislation. This is how article 7(2) of the 1980 Vienna Convention runs: "Questions concerning matters governed by this Convention which are not expressly settled in it are to be settled in conformity with the general principles on which it is based or, in the absence of such principles, in conformity with the law applicable by virtue of the rules of private international law".
Следует также отметить, что когда вопрос, относящийся к предмету ее регулирования, прямо в Конвенции не разрешен и не может быть разрешен в соответствии с общими принципами, на которых Венская конвенция 1980 года основана, то в силу норм международного частного права применимо российское гражданское законодательство. Статья 7(2)Венской конвенции 1980 года гласит: "Вопросы, относящиеся к предмету регулирования настоящей Конвенции, которые прямо в ней не разрешены, подлежат разрешению в соответствии с общими принципами, на которых она основана, а при отсутствии таких принципов – в соответствии с правом, применимым в силу норм международного частного права".
One should keep in mind the fundamental differences manifested in approaches to identifying the sphere of application of the 1980 Vienna Convention and those rules set forth in the CC RF which govern the sale of goods.
Необходимо учитывать принципиальные отличия, имеющиеся в подходе к определению сферы применения Венской конвенции 1980 года и норм Гражданского Кодекса Российской Федерации, регулирующих куплю-продажу.
The sphere of application of an international agreement is determined by the agreement’s own precepts. According to article 1(1) of the 1980 Vienna Convention, this treaty applies to international contracts of sale of goods between parties whose commercial enterprises (i.e., principal places of business) are in different countries when a) the countries are Contracting States (i. e., parties to the 1980 Vienna Convention), or when b) the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State.
Сфера применения международного договора определяется положениями самого договора. Согласно статье 1(1)Венской конвенции 1980 года, Конвенция применяется к договорам купли-продажи товаров между сторонами, коммерческие предприятия (т. е. основные места бизнеса)которых находятся в разных государствах: а)когда эти государства являются Договаривающимися государствами (т. е. участниками Венской конвенции 1980 года)или б)когда, согласно нормам международного частного права, применимо право Договаривающегося государства.
Hence, for the 1980 Vienna Convention to apply, parties to a contract must have their commercial enterprises located in different countries. It follows from this that a contract concluded by subjects of different countries whose commercial enterprises are located in the same country is not recognized as an international contract of sale, within the meaning of the 1980 Vienna Convention. Therefore, the contract would not be subject to the provisions of the 1980 Vienna Convention. Such a contract, if falling under Russian law, is governed by provisions set forth in the CC RF.
Следовательно, обязательным условием применения Венской конвенции 1980 года является нахождение коммерческих предприятий сторон договора в разных государствах. Из этого следует, что договор, заключенный предпринимателями разной государственной принадлежности, коммерческие предприятия которых находятся на территории одного государства, не признается в смысле Конвенции договором международной купли-продажи и соответственно к нему не применимы ее положения. Такой договор, если к нему применимо российское право, регулируется нормами Гражданского Кодекса РФ.
The 1980 Vienna Convention’s application is expressly ruled out in article 2 with respect to specific goods, namely, ships, vessels, hovercraft or aircraft, electricity, and securities. At the same time, transactions involving such goods are either subject to the rules of the applicable law, e. g. the CC RF or, as stipulated by the provisions on securities in article 454(2) of the CC RF, are to be governed by general regulations on the sale of goods. This would be the case unless special rules are in effect for their sale.
Прямо исключено применение Венской конвенции в отношении определенных видов товаров (статья 2), в частности, судов водного и воздушного транспорта, судов на воздушной подушке, электроэнергии, ценных бумаг. В то же время сделки с ними либо подпадают под действие норм применимого права, например Гражданского Кодекса РФ, либо, как это предусмотрено в отношении ценных бумаг (п.2 ст.454 Гражданского Кодекса РФ), регулируются общими положениями о купле-продаже, если законом не установлены специальные правила их купли-продажи.
The 1980 Vienna Convention does not apply to goods bought for personal, family, or household use if the seller – at any time before or at the conclusion of the contract – either knew or ought to have known that the goods were bought for such use. Nor does it apply to sales by auction, on execution or otherwise by the authority of law according to article 2.
Венская конвенция 1980 года не применяется в отношении товаров для личного, семейного или домашнего использования, за исключением случаев, когда продавец в любое время до или в момент заключения договора не знал и не должен был знать, что товары приобретаются для такого использования. Не применяется она и к продажам с аукциона в порядке исполнительного производства или иным образом в силу закона (ст.2 Конвенции).
The 1980 Vienna Convention is limited to formation of a contract of sale and the rights and obligations of seller and buyer arising from such a contract. In particular, this Convention is not concerned with the validity of such a contract, its provisions or usage, or with the effect the contract may have on goods sold. Moreover, under article 5 of this Convention, the seller is not liable for death or personal injury caused by the goods to any person.
Венская конвенция 1980 года регулирует только заключение договора и те права и обязанности продавца и покупателя, которые возникают из такого договора. В частности, по общему правилу она не касается действительности самого договора или каких-либо из его положений, либо любого обычая или последствий, которые может иметь договор в отношении права собственности на проданный товар (ст.4 Конвенции). Более того, не применяется она и в отношении ответственности продавца за товар, т. е. за причиненные товаром повреждения здоровья или смерть какого-либо лица (ст.5 Конвенции).
It should also be noted that the 1980 Vienna Convention does not set any rules to govern the choice of applicable law.
Следует также отметить, что Венская конвенция 1980 года не регулирует выбор применимого права.
Check Questions
Is the 1980 Vienna Convention imperative or dispositive in character?
The 1980 Vienna Convention. What is the sphere of its application?
How many countries have signed the 1980 Vienna Convention?
Does this Convention set any rules to govern the choice of law?
WORLD-WIDE CONTRACTUAL STANDARDS
INCOTERMS,THE ICC OFFICIAL RULES FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF TRADE TERMS
TERMS THE WORLD TRADES BY
In every international trade transaction certain questions must be answered:
Who will arrange and pay for the transfer of goods from the seller’s works/ factory/warehouse to the buyer’s premises?
Who will bear the risk if these operations cannot be carried out?Who will bear the risk of loss of or damage to the goods in transit?
The various national laws, of course, contain various solutions for each of these questions. However, one party to an international sales contract may hesitate to subject itself to the national laws and procedures of the other. This is why international commercial terms, or standardised trade terms, have been developed, notably by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) – the Incoterms.
With Incoterms, the ICC set out to overcome the problems of conflicting national laws and interpretations by establishing a standard set of trade terms and definitions that offer neutral rules and practices. They have been decided upon after thorough discussions between experts representing businessmen from all over the world.
The Incoterms were first published in 1936, since then they have been regularly updated to keep pace with the development of international trade. Amendments and additions were made in 1953, 1967, 1976, 1980, 1990 and presently in 2000.
In view of the changes made to Incoterms from time to time, it is important to ensure that where the parties intend to incorporate Incoterms into a contract of sale, an express reference be made to the current version of Incoterms. The absence of such reference may result in disputes as to whether the parties intended to incorporate as part of their contract that version or an earlier version.
The Incoterms become part of a sales contract if seller and buyer so agree by simple reference to one of the trade terms expressly stating that the contract should be interpreted according to a particular Incoterm, e. g. C.I.F. Incoterms 2000.
It should be noted that special provisions in individual contracts will override anything provided in Incoterms. Parties may adopt Incoterms as a general basis of a contract but may also specify variations or additions to fit a contract to a particular trade or to particular needs. In this context, it is important to bear in mind that Incoterms are premised on the seller’s minimum liability. In an individual contract, the buyer therefore may wish to increase the seller’s obligation.
It should also be kept in mind that reference to a particular Incoterm is not sufficient to determine the full legal relationship between parties to a contract of sale. Matters such as breach of contract and its consequences, as well as the difficult problem of ownership of goods, are outside the scope of the trade terms.
The scope of Incoterms is limited to matters relating to the rights and obligations of the parties to the contract of sale with respect to the delivery of goods sold. Their basic purpose is to explain how responsibility, cost and risk should be divided between the parties in connection with the delivery of goods from seller to buyer.
To establish this division, the point at which goods are considered delivered from seller to buyer under the respective terms must be indicated. Normally, at this point (the "critical point"), the obligation to arrange for further transport of goods and to assume further costs and risks is transferred from seller to buyer. Under some trade terms, the "critical points" for the transfer of costs and risks do not coincide.
There are two particular misconceptions about Incoterms:
they are frequently misunderstood as applying to a contract of carriage rather than to a contract of salethey are sometimes wrongly assumed to provide for all the obligations which parties may wish to include in a contract of sale.
These misconceptions are very common although the ICC has always stressed that Incoterms deal only with the relation between sellers and buyers under a contract of sale, and, moreover, only do so in some particular and very distinct respects.
Incoterms 2000
Incoterms 2000 bring the official ICC rules for the interpretation of the most commonly used trade terms in line with the current international trade practices:
recent spread of customs-free zonesincreased use of electronic communications in business transactionschanges in transport techniques.
In their 2000 revised version, Incoterms concentrate on the thirteen most important trade terms and offer a simpler and clearer presentation of them. The use of different expressions to convey the same meaning has been avoided. Moreover, whenever possible, the same expressions as appear in the 1980 Vienna Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods have been used.
The following is the complete list of Incoterms 2000 in their abbreviated form, full form and in a Russian translation.
As is clearly seen from the list, the terms are grouped in four basically different categories:
• the «E» term whereby the seller simply makes the goods available to the buyer at the seller’s own premises. This term represents the minimum obligation for the seller (and the maximum obligation for the buyer).
• the «F» terms FCA, FAS, FOB whereby the seller is asked to deliver the goods to a carrier appointed by the buyer.
• the «C» terms CFR, CIF, CPT, CIP whereby the seller contracts for carriage without taking the risk of loss or damage to goods or additional costs due to events occurring after shipment and dispatch.
• the «D» terms DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU, DDP whereby the seller bears all costs and risks needed to bring goods to place of destination.
The respective obligations of parties under each term are grouped under ten headings. Each heading on the seller’s side has its equivalent on the buyer’s side.
At first glance, it would seem best that each of the contracting parties limit its obligation as much as possible. The seller would then try to negotiate an Ex Works contract while the buyer would try to persuade the seller to deliver goods duty paid to the buyer’s premises. In practice, however, the situation is not that simple. A seller or a buyer cannot easily make a better contract merely by shifting functions, costs and risks to a contracting party. The parties involved will probably be guided by the following criteria:
Market situation
In a highly competitive market, the seller may wish to offer prices to the buyer that are comparable to prices offered in the buyer’s domestic market. The seller would then undertake to deliver the goods using the DDP term. As a minimum the seller would be obliged to arrange and pay for transportation by using the CIF term. One should remember that additional costs and risks accepted by the seller are always reflected in the price.
Control of transport and insurance
In some instances an exporter of large and regular volumes of goods may be in a position to obtain better terms from carriers and insurers than the occasional importer. It may be comparatively simple to arrange the transport in the country of export and the risk of something going wrong will be minimal. In such cases there is really no reason why the seller should limit his obligations under an Ex Works or FOB agreement. He could just as well accept a further obligation to arrange and pay for the carriage and insurance on CIF terms.
Sellers and buyers are not always prepared to accept risk of loss and damage to goods, or the risk of cost increases or circumstances hindering transport, in a foreign country. Under normal conditions of trade between countries with well-organized container ports and comparatively peaceful labour conditions, the risk of political disturbances, congestion in the ports, strikes or interruptions of trade may be minimal. In such cases, the seller may be prepared to assume the risk during transport, and to choose a term in which his responsibilities extend to the arrival of goods at destination (Delivered Duty Paid).
Government involvement
Directly or indirectly, government authorities may guide or even instruct parties in their country to sell on CIF terms and to buy on FOB terms. There are several reasons for this:
• trade terms constitute an important tool for directing the flow of goods to national shipping lines or other national carriers. They can also be used to promote the domestic insurance market.
• saving foreign currency. A seller who has undertaken to pay for carriage and insurance will include these costs in his price, and thereby obtain more foreign currency. On the other hand, a buyer who has assumed these costs will pay less for the actual goods, and may sometimes be able to pay for transportation and insurance services in domestic currency.
Use of exception clauses
It must be remembered that trade terms extending the seller’s obligations to delivery in the buyer’s country will not only mean additional costs for the seller but also additional risks. The risk of loss of goods or damage is perhaps not primarily important, since it is normally covered by cargo insurance.
Risks of cost increases and hindrances of various types are much more serious. Unforeseen events – such as the imposition of duties, other government interventions, labour disturbances, war or warlike operations – may put a heavy burden on the seller.
To a certain extent such risks may be modified and divided between the parties under terms other than Incoterms. Depending upon their wording, these terms may provide more or less protection; such protection, however, is seldom complete.
In view of the importance of Incoterms for international trade, we quote here five most frequently used terms from the ICC Incoterms 2000 (ICC publication № 560): EXW, FOB, CIF, CIP, DDP. In the following, each of the five Incoterms is briefly described, highlighting the main obligations of seller and buyer. The sections "The seller’s obligations"/ "The buyer’s obligations" serve at the same time as a checklist.
EXW, EX WORKS (…named place)
"Ex works" means that the seller delivers when he places the goods at the disposal of the buyer at the seller’s premises or another named place (i.e. works, factory, warehouse, etc.) not cleared for export and not loaded on any collecting vehicle.
This term thus represents the minimum obligation for the seller, and the buyer has to bear all costs and risks involved in taking the goods from the seller’s premises.
However, if the parties wish the seller to be responsible for the loading of the goods on departure and to bear the risks and all the costs of such loading, this should be made clear by adding explicit wording to this effect in the contract of sale. This term should not be used when the buyer cannot carry out the export formalities directly or indirectly. In such circumstances, the FCA term should be used, provided the seller agrees that he will load at his cost and risk.
The Seller’s obligations
A1 Provision of goods in conformity with the contract
The seller must provide the goods and the commercial invoice or its equivalent electronic message, in conformity with the contract of sale and any other evidence of conformity which may be required by the contract.
A2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The seller must render the buyer, at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining, where applicable, any export licence or other official authorization necessary for the export of the goods.
A3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
A4 Delivery
The seller must place the goods at the disposal of the buyer at the named place of delivery, not loaded on any collecting vehicle, on the date or within the period agreed or, if no such time is agreed, at the usual time for delivery of such goods. If no specific point has been agreed within the named place, and if there are several points available, the seller may select the point at the place of delivery which best suits his purpose.
A5 Transfer of risks
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B5, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A6 Division of costs
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B6, pay all costs relating to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A7 Notice to the buyer
The seller must give the buyer sufficient notice as to when and where the goods will be placed at his disposal.
A8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
No obligation.
A9 Checking – packaging – marking
The seller must pay the costs of those checking operations (such as checking quality, measuring, weighing, counting) which are necessary for the purpose of placing the goods at the buyer’s disposal.
The seller must provide at his own expense packaging (unless it is usual for the particular trade to make the goods of the contract description available unpacked) which is required for the transport of the goods, to the extent that the circumstances relating to the transport (for example modalities, destination) are made known to the seller before the contract of sale is concluded. Packaging is to be marked appropriately.
A10 Other obligations
The seller must render the buyer at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining any documents or equivalent electronic messages issued or transmitted in the country of delivery and/or of origin which the buyer may require for the export and/or import of the goods and, where necessary, for their transit through any country.
The seller must provide the buyer, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring insurance.
The Buyer’s obligations
B1 Payment of the price
The buyer must pay the price as provided in the contract of sale.
B2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The buyer must obtain at his own risk and expense any export and import licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities for the export of the goods.
B3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
B4 Taking delivery
The buyer must take delivery of the goods when they have been delivered in accordance with A4 and A7/B7.
B5 Transfer of risks
The buyer must bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods
• from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• from the agreed date or the expiry date of any period fixed for taking delivery which arise because he fails to give notice in accordance with B7, provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods.
B6 Division of costs
The buyer must pay
• all costs relating to the goods from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• any additional costs incurred by failing either to take delivery of the goods when they have been placed at his disposal, or to give appropriate notice in accordance with B7 provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods; and
• where applicable, all duties, taxes and other charges as well as the costs of carrying out customs formalities payable upon export.
The buyer must reimburse all costs and charges incurred by the seller in rendering assistance in accordance with A2.
B7 Notice to the seller
The buyer must, whenever he is entitled to determine the time within an agreed period and/or the place of taking delivery, give the seller sufficient notice thereof.
B8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The buyer must provide the seller with appropriate evidence of having taken delivery.
B9 Inspection of goods
The buyer must pay the costs of any pre-shipment inspection, including inspection mandated by the authorities of the country of export.
B10 Other obligations
The buyer must pay all costs and charges incurred in obtaining the documents or equivalent electronic messages mentioned in A10 and reimburse those incurred by the seller in rendering his assistance in accordance therewith.
FOB, FREE ON BOARD (…named port of shipment)
"Free on Board" means that the seller delivers when the goods pass the ship’s rail at the named port of shipment. This means that the buyer has to bear all costs and risks of loss of or damage to the goods from that point. The FOB term requires the seller to clear the goods for export. This term can be used only for sea or inland waterway transport. If the parties do not intend to deliver the goods across the ship’s rail, the FCA term should be used.
The Seller’s obligations
A1 Provision of goods in conformity with the contract
The seller must provide the goods and the commercial invoice, or its equivalent electronic message, in conformity with the contract of sale and any other evidence of conformity which may be required by the contract.
A2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The seller must obtain at his own risk and expense any export licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities necessary for the export of the goods.
A3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
A4 Delivery
The seller must deliver the goods on the date or within the agreed period at the named port of shipment and in the manner customary at the port on board the vessel nominated by the buyer.
A5 Transfer of risks
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B5, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have passed the ship’s rail at the named port of shipment.
A6 Division of costs
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B6, pay
• all costs relating to the goods until such time as they have passed the ship’s rail at the named port of shipment; and
• where applicable, the costs of customs formalities necessary for export as well as all duties, taxes and other charges payable upon export.
A7 Notice to the buyer
The seller must give the buyer sufficient notice that the goods have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The seller must provide the buyer at the seller’s expense with the usual proof of delivery in accordance with A4.
Unless the document referred to in the preceding paragraph is the transport document, the seller must render the buyer, at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining a transport document for the contract of carriage (for example, a negotiable bill of lading, a non-negotiable sea waybill, an inland waterway document, or a multimodal transport document).
Where the seller and the buyer have agreed to communicate electronically, the document referred to in the preceding paragraph may be replaced by an equivalent electronic data interchange (EDI) message.
A9 Checking – packaging – marking
The seller must pay the costs of those checking operations (such as checking quality, measuring, weighing, counting) which are necessary for the purpose of delivering the goods in accordance with A4.
The seller must provide at his own expense packaging (unless it is usual for the particular trade to ship the goods of the contract description unpacked) which is required for the transport of the goods, to the extent that the circumstances relating to the transport (for example modalities, destination) are made known to the seller before the contract of sale is concluded. Packaging is to be marked appropriately.
A10 Other obligations
The seller must render the buyer at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining any documents or equivalent electronic messages (other than those mentioned in A8) issued or transmitted in the country of shipment and/or of origin which the buyer may require for the import of the goods and, where necessary, for their transit through any country.
The seller must provide the buyer, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring insurance.
The Buyer’s obligations
B1 Payment of the price
The buyer must pay the price as provided in the contract of sale.
B2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The buyer must obtain at his own risk and expense any import licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities for the import of the goods and, where necessary, for their transit through any country.
B3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
The buyer must contract at his own expense for the carriage of the goods from the named port of shipment.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
B4 Taking delivery
The buyer must take delivery of the goods when they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
B5 Transfer of risks
The buyer must bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods
• from the time they have passed the ship’s rail at the named port of shipment; and
• from the agreed date or the expiry date of the agreed period for delivery which arise because he fails to give notice in accordance with B7, or because the vessel nominated by him fails to arrive on time, or is unable to take the goods, or closes for cargo earlier than the time notified in accordance with B7, provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods.
B6 Division of costs
The buyer must pay
• all costs relating to the goods from the time they have passed the ship’s rail at the named port of shipment; and
• any additional costs incurred, either because the vessel nominated by him fails to arrive on time, or is unable to take the goods, or closes for cargo earlier than the time notified in accordance with B7, or because the buyer has failed to give appropriate notice in accordance with B7, provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods; and
• where applicable, all duties, taxes and other charges as well as the costs of carrying out customs formalities payable upon import of the goods and for their transit through any country.
B7 Notice to the seller
The buyer must give the seller sufficient notice of the vessel name, loading point and required delivery time.
B8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The buyer must accept the proof of delivery in accordance with A8.
B9 Inspection of goods
The buyer must pay the costs of any pre-shipment inspection except when such inspection is mandated by the authorities of the country of export.
B10 Other obligations
The buyer must pay all costs and charges incurred in obtaining the documents or equivalent electronic messages mentioned in A10 and reimburse those incurred by the seller in rendering his assistance in accordance therewith.
CIF, COST INSURANCE AND FREIGHT (…named port of destination)
"Cost, Insurance and Freight" means that the seller delivers when the goods pass the ship’s rail in the port of shipment.
The seller must pay the costs and freight necessary to bring the goods to the named port of destination BUT the risk of loss of or damage to the goods, as well as any additional costs due to events occurring after the time of delivery, are transferred from the seller to the buyer. However, in CIF the seller also has to procure marine insurance against the buyer’s risk of loss of or damage to the goods during the carriage.
Consequently, the seller contracts for insurance and pays the insurance premium. The buyer should note that under the CIF term the seller is required to obtain insurance only on minimum cover. Should the buyer wish to have the protection of greater cover, he would either need to agree as much expressly with the seller or to make his own extra insurance arrangements.
The CIF term requires the seller to clear the goods for export.
This term can be used only for sea and inland waterway transport. If the parties do not intend to deliver the goods across the ship’s rail, the CIP term should be used.
The Seller’s obligations
A1 Provision of goods in conformity with the contract
The seller must provide the goods and the commercial invoice, or its equivalent electronic message, in conformity with the contract of sale and any other evidence of conformity which may be required by the contract.
A2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The seller must obtain at his own risk and expense any export licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities necessary for the export of the goods.
A3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
The seller must contract on usual terms at his own expense for the carriage of the goods to the named port of destination by the usual route in a seagoing vessel (or inland waterway vessel as the case may be) of the type normally used for the transport of goods of the contract description.
b) Contract of insurance
The seller must obtain at his own expense cargo insurance as agreed in the contract, such that the buyer, or any other person having an insurable interest in the goods, shall be entitled to claim directly from the insurer and provide the buyer with the insurance policy or other evidence of insurance cover.
The insurance shall be contracted with underwriters or an insurance company of good repute and, failing express agreement to the contrary, be in accordance with minimum cover of the Institute Cargo Clauses (Institute of London Underwriters) or any similar set of clauses. The duration of insurance cover shall be in accordance with B5 and B4. When required by the buyer, the seller shall provide at the buyer’s expense war, strikes, riots and civil commotion risk insurances if procurable. The minimum insurance shall cover the price provided in the contract plus ten per cent (i. e. 110 %) and shall be provided in the currency of the contract.
A4 Delivery
The seller must deliver the goods on board the vessel at the port of shipment on the date or within the agreed period.
A5 Transfer of risks
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B5, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have passed the ship’s rail at the port of shipment.
A6 Division of costs
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B6, pay
• all costs relating to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• the freight and all other costs resulting from A3 a), including the costs of loading the goods on board; and
• the costs of insurance resulting from A3 b); and
• any charges for unloading at the agreed port of discharge which were for the seller’s account under the contract of carriage; and
• where applicable, the costs of customs formalities necessary for export as well as all duties, taxes and other charges payable upon export, and for their transit through any country if they were for the seller’s account under the contract of carriage.
A7 Notice to the buyer
The seller must give the buyer sufficient notice that the goods have been delivered in accordance with A4 as well as any other notice required in order to allow the buyer to take measures which are normally necessary to enable him to take the goods.
A8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The seller must, at his own expense, provide the buyer without delay with the usual transport document for the agreed port of destination.
This document (for example a negotiable bill of lading, a non-negotiable sea waybill or an inland waterway document) must cover the contract goods, be dated within the period agreed for shipment, enable the buyer to claim the goods from the carrier at the port of destination and, unless otherwise agreed, enable the buyer to sell the goods in transit by the transfer of the document to a subsequent buyer (the negotiable bill of lading) or by notification to the carrier.
When such a transport document is issued in several originals, a full set of originals must be presented to the buyer.
Where the seller and the buyer have agreed to communicate electronically, the document referred to in the preceding paragraphs may be replaced by an equivalent electronic data interchange (EDI) message.
A9 Checking – packaging – marking
The seller must pay the costs of those checking operations (such as checking quality, measuring, weighing, counting) which are necessary for the purpose of delivering the goods in accordance with A4.
The seller must provide at his own expense packaging (unless it is usual for the particular trade to ship the goods of the contract description unpacked) which is required for the transport of the goods arranged by him. Packaging is to be marked appropriately.
A10 Other obligations
The seller must render the buyer at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining any documents or equivalent electronic messages (other than those mentioned in A8) issued or transmitted in the country of shipment and/or of origin which the buyer may require for the import of the goods and, where necessary, for their transit through any country.
The seller must provide the buyer, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring any additional insurance.
The Buyer’s obligations
B1 Payment of the price
The buyer must pay the price as provided in the contract of sale.
B2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The buyer must obtain at his own risk and expense any import licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities for the import of the goods and for their transit through any country.
B3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
B4 Taking delivery
The buyer must accept delivery of the goods when they have been delivered in accordance with A4 and receive them from the carrier at the named port of destination.
B5 Transfer of risks
The buyer must bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods from the time they have passed the ship’s rail at the port of shipment.
The buyer must, should he fail to give notice in accordance with B7, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods from the agreed date or the expiry date of the period fixed for shipment provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods.
B6 Division of costs
The buyer must, subject to the provisions of A3, pay
• all costs relating to the goods from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• all costs and charges relating to the goods whilst in transit until their arrival at the port of destination, unless such costs and charges were for the seller’s account under the contract of carriage; and
• unloading costs including lighterage and wharfage charges, unless such costs and charges were for the seller’s account under the contract of carriage; and
• all additional costs incurred if he fails to give notice in accordance with B7, for the goods from the agreed date or the expiry date of the period fixed for shipment, provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods; and
• where applicable, all duties, taxes and other charges as well as the costs of carrying out customs formalities payable upon import of the goods and, where necessary, for their transit through any country unless included within the cost of the contract of carriage.
B7 Notice to the seller
The buyer must, whenever he is entitled to determine the time for shipping the goods and/or the port of destination, give the seller sufficient notice thereof.
B8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The buyer must accept the transport document in accordance with A8 if it is in conformity with the contract.
B9 Inspection of goods
The buyer must pay the costs of any pre-shipment inspection except when such inspection is mandated by the authorities of the country of export.
B10 Other obligations
The buyer must pay all costs and charges incurred in obtaining the documents or equivalent electronic messages mentioned in A10 and reimburse those incurred by the seller in rendering his assistance in accordance therewith.
The buyer must provide the seller, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring insurance.
CIP, CARRIAGE AND INSURANCE PAID TO (…named place of destination)
"Carriage and Insurance paid to…" means that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier nominated by him, but the seller must in addition pay the cost of carriage necessary to bring the goods to the named destination. This means that the buyer bears all risks and any additional costs occurring after the goods have been so delivered. However, in CIP the seller also has to procure insurance against the buyer’s risk of loss of or damage to the goods during the carriage.
Consequently, the seller contracts for insurance and pays the insurance premium.
The buyer should note that under the CIP term the seller is required to obtain insurance only on minimum cover. Should the buyer wish to have the protection of greater cover, he would either need to agree as much expressly with the seller or to make his own extra insurance arrangements.
"Carrier" means any person who, in a contract of carriage, undertakes to perform or to procure the performance of transport, by rail, road, air, sea, inland waterway or by a combination of such modes.
If subsequent carriers are used for the carriage to the agreed destination, the risk passes when the goods have been delivered to the first carrier.
The CIP term requires the seller to clear the goods for export.
This term may be used irrespective of the mode of transport, including multimodal transport.
The Seller’s obligations
A1 Provision of goods in conformity with the contract
The seller must provide the goods and the commercial invoice, or its equivalent electronic message, in conformity with the contract of sale and any other evidence of conformity which may be required by the contract.
A2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The seller must obtain at his own risk and expense any export licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities necessary for the export of the goods.
A3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
The seller must contract on usual terms at his own expense for the carriage of the goods to the agreed point at the named place of destination by a usual route and in a customary manner. If a point is not agreed or is not determined by practice, the seller may select the point at the named place of destination which best suits his purpose.
b) Contract of insurance
The seller must obtain at his own expense cargo insurance as agreed in the contract, such that the buyer, or any other person having an insurable interest in the goods, shall be entitled to claim directly from the insurer and provide the buyer with the insurance policy or other evidence of insurance cover.
The insurance shall be contracted with underwriters or an insurance company of good repute and, failing express agreement to the contrary, be in accordance with minimum cover of the Institute Cargo Clauses (Institute of London Underwriters) or any similar set of clauses. The duration of insurance cover shall be in accordance with B5 and B4. When required by the buyer, the seller shall provide at the buyer’s expense war, strikes, riots and civil commotion risk insurances if procurable. The minimum insurance shall cover the price provided in the contract plus ten per cent (i. e. 110 %) and shall be provided in the currency of the contract.
A4 Delivery
The seller must deliver the goods to the carrier contracted in accordance with A3 or, if there are subsequent carriers to the first carrier, for transport to the agreed point at the named place on the date or within the agreed period.
A5 Transfer of risks
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B5, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A6 Division of costs
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B6, pay
• all costs relating to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4 as well as the freight and all other costs resulting from A3 a), including the costs of loading the goods and any charges for unloading at the place of destination which were for the seller’s account under the contract of carriage; and
• the costs of insurance resulting from A3 b); and
• where applicable, the costs of customs formalities necessary for export as well as all duties, taxes or other charges payable upon export, and for their transit through any country if they were for the seller’s account under the contract of carriage.
A7 Notice to the buyer
The seller must give the buyer sufficient notice that the goods have been delivered in accordance with A4, as well as any other notice required in order to allow the buyer to take measures which are normally necessary to enable him to take the goods.
A8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The seller must provide the buyer at the seller’s expense, if customary, with the usual transport document or documents (for example a negotiable bill of lading, a non-negotiable sea waybill, an inland waterway document, an air waybill, a railway consignment note, a road consignment note, or a multimodal transport document) for the transport contracted in accordance with A3.
Where the seller and the buyer have agreed to communicate electronically, the document referred to in the preceding paragraph may be replaced by an equivalent electronic data interchange (EDI) message.
A9 Checking – packaging – marking
The seller must pay the costs of those checking operations (such as checking quality, measuring, weighing, counting) which are necessary for the purpose of delivering the goods in accordance with A4.
The seller must provide at his own expense packaging (unless it is usual for the particular trade to send the goods of the contract description unpacked) which is required for the transport of the goods arranged by him. Packaging is to be marked appropriately.
A10 Other obligations
The seller must render the buyer at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining any documents or equivalent electronic messages (other than those mentioned in A8) issued or transmitted in the country of dispatch and/or of origin which the buyer may require for the import of the goods and for their transit through any country.
The seller must provide the buyer, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring any additional insurance.
The Buyer’s obligations
B1 Payment of the price
The buyer must pay the price as provided in the contract of sale.
B2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The buyer must obtain at his own risk and expense any import licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities for the import of the goods and for their transit through any country.
B3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
B4 Taking delivery
The buyer must accept delivery of the goods when they have been delivered in accordance with A4 and receive them from the carrier at the named place.
B5 Transfer of risks
The buyer must bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
The buyer must, should he fail to give notice in accordance with B7, bear all risks of the goods from the agreed date or the expiry date of the period fixed for delivery provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods.
B6 Division of costs
The buyer must, subject to the provisions of A3 a), pay
• all costs relating to the goods from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• all costs and charges relating to the goods whilst in transit until their arrival at the agreed place of destination, unless such costs and charges were for the seller’s account under the contract of carriage; and
• unloading costs unless such costs and charges were for the seller’s account under the contract of carriage; and
• all additional costs incurred if he fails to give notice in accordance with B7, for the goods from the agreed date or the expiry date of the period fixed for dispatch, provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods; and
• where applicable, all duties, taxes and other charges as well as the costs of carrying out customs formalities payable upon import of the goods and for their transit through any country unless included within the cost of the contract of carriage.
B7 Notice to the seller
The buyer must, whenever he is entitled to determine the time for dispatching the goods and/or the destination, give the seller sufficient notice thereof.
B8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The buyer must accept the transport document in accordance with A8 if it is in conformity with the contract.
B9 Inspection of goods
The buyer must pay the costs of any pre-shipment inspection except when such inspection is mandated by the authorities of the country of export.
B10 Other obligations
The buyer must pay all costs and charges incurred in obtaining the documents or equivalent electronic messages mentioned in A10 and reimburse those incurred by the seller in rendering his assistance in accordance therewith.
The buyer must provide the seller, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring any additional insurance.
DDP, DELIVERED DUTY PAID (…named place of destination)
"Delivered duty paid" means that the seller delivers the goods to the buyer, cleared for import, and not unloaded from any arriving means of transport at the named place of destination. The seller has to bear all the costs and risks involved in bringing the goods thereto including, where applicable, any «duty» (which term includes the responsibility for and the risk of the carrying out of customs formalities and the payment of formalities, customs duties, taxes and other charges) for import in the country of destination.
Whilst the EXW term represents the minimum obligation for the seller, DDP represents the maximum obligation.
This term should not be used if the seller is unable directly or indirectly to obtain the import licence.
However, if the parties wish to exclude from the seller’s obligations some of the costs payable upon import of the goods (such as value-added tax: VAT), this should be made clear by adding explicit wording to this effect in the contract of sale.
If the parties wish the buyer to bear all risks and costs of the import, the DDU term should be used.
This term may be used irrespective of the mode of transport but when delivery is to take place in the port of destination on board the vessel or on the quay (wharf), the DES or DEQ terms should be used.
The Seller’s obligations
A1 Provision of the goods in conformity with the contract
The seller must provide the goods and the commercial invoice, or its equivalent electronic message, in conformity with the contract of sale and any other evidence of conformity which may be required by the contract.
A2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The seller must obtain at his own risk and expense any export and import licence and other official authorization or other documents and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities necessary for the export of the goods, for their transit through any country and for their import.
A3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
The seller must contract at his own expense for the carriage of the goods to the named place of destination. If a specific point is not agreed or is not determined by practice, the seller may select the point at the named place of destination which best suits his purpose.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
A4 Delivery
The seller must place the goods at the disposal of the buyer, or at that of another person named by the buyer, on any arriving means of transport not unloaded at the named place of destination on the date or within the period agreed for delivery.
A5 Transfer of risks
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B5, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A6 Division of costs
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B6, pay
• in addition to costs resulting from A3 a), all costs relating to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• where applicable, the costs of customs formalities necessary for export and import as well as all duties, taxes or other charges payable upon export and import of the goods, and for their transit through any country prior to delivery in accordance with A4.
A7 Notice to the buyer
The seller must give the buyer sufficient notice of the dispatch of the goods as well as any other notice required in order to allow the buyer to take measures which are normally necessary to enable him to take delivery of the goods.
A8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The seller must provide the buyer at the seller’s expense with the delivery order and/or the usual transport document (for example a negotiable bill of lading, a non-negotiable sea waybill, an inland waterway document, an air waybill, a railway consignment note, a road consignment note, or a multimodal transport document) which the buyer may require to take delivery of the goods in accordance with A4/B4.
Where the seller and the buyer have agreed to communicate electronically, the document referred to in the preceding paragraph may be replaced by an equivalent electronic data interchange (EDI) message.
A9 Checking – packaging – marking
The seller must pay the costs of those checking operations (such as checking quality, measuring, weighing, counting) which are necessary for the purpose of delivering the goods in accordance with A4.
The seller must provide at his own expense packaging (unless it is usual for the particular trade to deliver the goods of the contract description unpacked) which is required for the delivery of the goods. Packaging is to be marked appropriately.
A10 Other obligations
The seller must pay all costs and charges incurred in obtaining the documents or equivalent electronic messages mentioned in B10 and reimburse those incurred by the buyer in rendering his assistance herewith.
The seller must provide the buyer, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring insurance.
The Buyer’s obligations
B1 Payment of the price
The buyer must pay the price as provided in the contract of sale.
B2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The buyer must render the seller at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining, where applicable, any import licence or other official authorization necessary for the import of the goods.
B3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
B4 Taking delivery
The buyer must take delivery of the goods when they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
B5 Transfer of risks
The buyer must bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
The buyer must, should he fail to fulfil his obligations in accordance with B2, bear all additional risks of loss of or damage to the goods incurred thereby.
The buyer must, should he fail to give notice in accordance with B7, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods from the agreed date or the expiry date of the agreed period for delivery provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods.
B6 Division of costs
The buyer must pay
• all costs relating to the goods from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• all additional costs incurred if he fails to fulfil his obligations in accordance with B2, or to give notice in accordance with B7, provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods; and
B7 Notice to the seller
The buyer must, whenever he is entitled to determine the time within an agreed period and/or the point of taking delivery at the named place, give the seller sufficient notice thereof.
B8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The buyer must accept the appropriate delivery order or transport document in accordance with A8.
B9 Inspection of goods
The buyer must pay the costs of any pre-shipment inspection except when such inspection is mandated by the authorities of the country of export.
B10 Other obligations
The buyer must render the seller, at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining any documents or equivalent electronic messages issued or transmitted in the country of import which the seller may require for the purpose of making the goods available to the buyer in accordance therewith.
Attention should be drawn to the fact that trade terms are closely interrelated to other terms of a contract of sale,and risk distribution cannot be fully understood without reading the contract as a whole.
Check Questions
What are Incoterms?
Who compiled Incoterms and when?
Why are the ICC Incoterms regularly updated?
What is the scope of Incoterms?
What are the two most common misconceptions about Incoterms?
What is the purpose of Incoterms?
What happens if the parties use the wrong Incoterms?
What are the specifics of Incoterms 2000?
How many definitions do Incoterms 2000 offer?
What are the basic delivery terms?
What are the main obligations of the buyer under
– EXW
– DDP
– FOB
– CIF?
What are the main obligations of the seller under
– CIF
– CIP
– DDP?
What is the reputation of Incoterms?
Why do Incoterms now enjoy world-wide recognition?
THE UNIDROIT PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL CONTRACTS
It would be no exaggeration to say that the drawing up of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts constitutes an important contribution to the process of international unification of law.
Purpose of the UNIDROIT Principles
Below please find the purpose of the UNIDROIT Principles as stated in the Preamble and the Russian translation [Принципы международных коммерческих договоров/ Перевод с англ. А. С. Комарова – М.: Международный центр финансово-экономического развития, 1996.].
Preamble (Purpose of the Principles)
Преамбула (Цели Принципов)
"These Principles set forth general rules for international commercial contracts.
"Настоящие Принципы устанавливают общие нормы для международных коммерческих договоров.
They shall be applied when the parties have agreed that their contract be governed by them.
Они подлежат применению в случае, если стороны согласились, что их договор будет регулироваться этими принципами.
They may be applied when the parties have agreed that their contract be governed by "general principles of law", the "lex mercatoria" or the like.
Они могут применяться, когда стороны согласились, что их договор будет регулироваться "общими принципами права","lex mercatoria" или аналогичными положениями.
They may provide a solution to an issue raised when it proves impossible to establish the relevant rule of the applicable law.
Они могут использоваться для решения вопроса, возникающего в случае, когда оказывается невозможным установить соответствующую норму применимого права.
They may be used to interpret or supplement international uniform law instruments.
Они могут использоваться для толкования и восполнения международных унифицированных правовых документов.
They may serve as a model for national and international legislators".
Они могут служить моделью для национального и международного законодательства".
Non-legislative means of unifying law
Special emphasis should be laid on the fact that the UNIDROIT Principles are non-legislative means of unification of law. They do not involve the endorsement of Governments, hence they are not a binding instrument and their acceptance depends on their persuasive authority.
There are a number of significant ways in which the UNIDROIT Principles may be applied. The most important are explained in the Preamble. An excerpt follows.
UNIDROIT Principles as rules of law governing contracts
"As the Principles represent a system of rules of contract law which are common to existing national legal systems or best adapted to the special requirements of international commercial transactions, there might be good reasons for the parties to choose them expressly as the rules applicable to their contract, in place of one or another particular domestic law.
"Поскольку Принципы представляют собой систему норм договорного права, являющихся общими для существующих национальных правовых систем или в наибольшей степени приспособленных к особым требованиям международных коммерческих сделок, вполне разумным для сторон мог бы быть прямой выбор Принципов в качестве норм, применимых к их договору вместо той или иной конкретной правовой системы.
Parties who wish to adopt the Principles as the rules applicable to their contract would however be well advised to combine the reference to the Principles with an arbitration agreement.
Можно было бы посоветовать сторонам, желающим принять Принципы в качестве норм, применимых к их договору, объединить ссылку на Принципы с арбитражным соглашением.
The reason for this is that the freedom of choice of the parties in designing the law governing their contract is traditionally limited to national laws. Therefore, a reference by the parties to the Principles will normally be considered to be a mere agreement to incorporate them in the contract, while the law governing the contract will still have to be determined on the basis of the private international law rules of the forum. As a result, the Principles will find the parties only to the extent that they do not affect the rules of the applicable law from which the parties may not derogate".
Причина этого заключается в том, что свобода сторон выбирать право, регулирующее их договор, традиционно ограничивается ссылкой на национальное право. Поэтому ссылка сторон на Принципы обычно будет рассматриваться как простое соглашение об их инкорпорировании в договор, в то время как право, регулирующее договор, должно тем не менее быть установлено на основе норм международного частного права места рассмотрения спора. В результате Принципы будут связывать стороны только в той мере, в какой они не будут затрагивать императивные нормы применимого права, от которых стороны не вправе отступать".
The main points covered by the UNIDROIT Principles are:
1. General Provisions
Общие положения
2. Formation
Заключение договора
3. Validity
Действительность
4. Interpretation
Толкование
5. Content
Содержание
6. Performance
Исполнение
7. Non-performance
Неисполнение
The UNIDROIT Principles have been offered to the international legal and business communities. They may be of even greater importance to the relevant communities of Russia, the country now making its way to a market economy and in a period of transition to new legislative principles and norms.
Check Questions
What is the purpose of the UNIDROIT Principles?
Are the UNIDROIT Principles legislative means of unification of law?
THE ICC MODEL INTERNATIONAL SALE CONTRACT (MANUFACTURED GOODS INTENDED FOR RESALE)
Type of contract envisaged by the ICC model contract
The ICC model contract is primarily designed for contacts governing the sale of manufactured goods to be re-sold, the sort of contract under which the buyer is not a consumer and the contract itself is a separate transaction rather than part of a long-term supply agreement.
Structure of the ICC model contract
It is common knowledge that contracts for the international sale of goods can be drawn either in the form of a single document embracing all the terms and conditions for the sale of goods or in the form of two documents, with one supplementing the other: special conditions and general conditions. As for the ICC Model International Sale Contract, it consists of two parts: Specific Conditions (Part A) and General Conditions (Part B). Part A presents principal conditions, Part B renders them concrete.
In Part A one can find sixteen points by which the parties may agree the particular terms of their contract by filling in the gaps. These points are listed below, the corresponding clause number of the General Conditions is indicated in brackets:
Goods to be sold
Contract price (art. 4)
Delivery terms
Time of deliveryInspection of goods by buyer (art. 3)
Retention of title (art. 7)
Payment conditions (art. 5)
Documents
Cancellation date
Liability for delay (art. 10.1, 10.4 and 11.3)
Limitation of liability for lack of conformity (art. 11.5)
Limitation of liability where non-conforming goods are retained by the buyer (art. 11.6)
Time-bar (art. 11.8)
Applicable law (art. 1.2)
Resolution of disputes (art. 14)
Other
The ICC General Conditions have been prepared for use together with the Specific Conditions (Part A) of the International Sale Contract (Manufactured Goods intended for resale), but they may also be used for any other sale contract. One should also remember that in case of a conflict between these General Conditions and any special conditions agreed upon between the parties, the special conditions shall prevail.
The following table of clauses provides the fourteen articles which constitute Part B of the ICC Model International Sale Contract.
We would like to draw your attention to the fact that the ICC model contract incorporates the 1980 Vienna Convention in article 1.2(A) of Part B, which means that the 1980 Vienna Convention will apply whether or not the countries of the seller and buyer have ratified this Convention.
Below are some comments on what should normally be included in a sale contract and how.
Standard content of a sale contract
General
A sale contract (like any other contract) starts with a statement of the parties to the contract, i. e. information regarding seller and buyer (names and complete legal addresses, including telephone/fax numbers and e-mail). This statement may also give information on contact persons from both sides.
Particulars of how certain terms should be interpreted under a specific contract are also given at the beginning.
Characteristics of the goods
Next comes the subject of the contract, i.e. description of goods for sale. Information on the goods to be bought or sold must be complete and include: type of goods, their quality, quantity, origin, colour, weight, technical characteristics, trade mark if applicable, packing.
Contract price
The ICC model contract finds it appropriate for the contract price clause A-2 of Part A to specify the currency (or currencies) in which payment is to be made and the amount payable to the Seller (both in numbers and letters).
Attention should be drawn to the fact that the price does not include VAT, and is not subject to any price adjustments (art. 4.2 of Part B), with the exception of any alterations authorized by the special conditions of the contract. The model contract does not contain price adjustment clauses because it is primarily intended for one-off transactions rather than long-term supply arrangements.
Delivery terms
As to delivery terms, it is recommended that the parties incorporate into their contract one of the Incoterms (the current or an earlier version). If they fail to do so, delivery shall be EXW (General Conditions, art.8).
It should be noted that the Working Party responsible for drafting the model contract recommends that the Incoterms most appropriate for use with this model contract would be EXW, FCA, CPT, CIP, DAF, DDU or DDP.
Time of delivery
The parties are also advised to indicate a time of delivery by agreeing either a precise date on which or a period within which the seller undertakes to fulfil his delivery obligations under the relevant Incoterm chosen by the parties.
Inspection and tests
If the parties agree that the buyer has the right to inspect the goods to make certain that they conform to the contract, the relevant clause in the special conditions specifies what inspections the buyer may require and where. In the model contract "before shipment" inspection is recommended (A-5 of Part A).
Article 3 of Part B says that the seller is required to notify the buyer in good time before shipment of the readiness of goods for inspection on the agreed premises.
Retention of title
As indicated in article 7 of Part B, the parties may agree that the goods will remain the property of the seller until payment is received in full.
Payment conditions
It is important to define the method and time of payment. In A-7 of Part A it is recommended that the parties agree one of the following modes of payment: payment on open account, payment in advance, documentary collection, irrevocable documentary credit, other (e.g. cheque, bank draft, electronic funds transfer to the designated bank account of the seller).
Attention should be drawn to the fact that when payment is to be made by transfer to the seller’s bank, not only the name and address of the bank, but all the payment details should be enumerated.
Payment on open account
Time of payment on open account as stipulated in article 5.1 of Part B "shall be 30 days from the date of invoice".
If the parties agree that payment is to be backed by a bank guarantee, the buyer must provide at least 30 days before the agreed date of delivery a first demand bank guarantee or a standby letter of credit subject to the relevant rules published by the ICC (art. 5.5 of Part B).
Payment in advance
It should be noted that unless otherwise agreed, payment in advance is understood to refer to the full price. Article 5.2 of Part B provides that advance payment must be received by the seller’s bank at least 30 days before the date of delivery.
Documentary collection
The parties can agree on payment by documentary collection, then documents are to be presented against payment (D/P) or against acceptance (D/A). It should not be overlooked that the tender will in any case be subject to the ICC Uniform Rules for Collection (art. 5.4 of Part B).
Irrevocable documentary credit
If the parties agree on payment by documentary credit, then the buyer should arrange for a documentary credit (confirmed or unconfirmed) in favour of the seller. Place of issue (if applicable) and place of confirmation (if applicable) should not be overlooked in the special conditions.
The model contract (art. 5.3 of Part B) requires that the documentary credit be paid at sight and allows partial shipments and transhipments.
Documents
It is important to indicate documents (if any) to be provided by the seller in accordance with the applicable Incoterm. In the model contract the parties are advised to choose from the following list:
Transport documents in common use, with an indication of the type of transport for which they are appropriate
Commercial Invoice
Packing list
Insurance document
Certificate of origin
Certificate of inspection
Liability for delay
In accordance with international commercial practice the ICC model contract provides for limitation of the amount of damages that may be claimed for delay in delivery, non-delivery and non-conformity of goods by stating basic formulae in Part B.
Article 10.1 of Part B says that in case of delay in delivery of any goods, the buyer may claim liquidated damages of 0,5 per cent per week with a maximum amount of 5 per cent of the price of the delayed goods.
In case of termination of the contract, in addition to any amount paid or payable under article 10.1 of Part B, the buyer may claim an amount for proven loss not exceeding 10 per cent of the price of the non-delivered goods (article 10.4 of Part B).
It should be emphasized that although these formulae are recommended, the parties are given an opportunity to modify them by completing clause A-10 of Part A, i.e. by specifying
• the sum (as a percentage of the price of delayed goods) to be deducted weekly as liquidated damages as well as the maximum not to be exceeded or
• the amount
Time-bar
The ICC model contract considers questions connected with time-bar in clause A-13 of Part A and in article 11.8 of Part B. It is important to bear in mind that Russian firms never include these matters in their contracts because they regard them as subject to applicable law.
Force-majeure
The ICC model contract (art. 13.1 of Part B) recommends the following wording for force majeure:
"A party is not liable for a failure to perform any of his obligations in so far as he proves:
that the failure was due to an impediment beyond his control, and
that he could not reasonably be expected to have taken into account the impediment and its effects upon his ability to perform at the time of the conclusion of the Contract, and
that he could not reasonably have avoided or overcome it or its effects".
Further stipulations in this article are intended to allocate losses in the case of commonly recognized instances of force majeure.
Article 13(2) says that if a force majeure situation arises, a party seeking relief must promptly notify the other party of such impediment and its effects on his ability to perform. Notice must also be given when the ground of relief ceases. The party failing to give either notice is held liable for damages for loss which otherwise could have been avoided.
It should be noted that a ground of relief under Article 13 of the model contract, without prejudice to its other remedies, releases the party failing to perform from liability for damages, penalties and other contractual sanctions, "except from the duty to pay interest on money owing as long as and to the extent that the ground subsists" (art. 13.3 of Part B).
Attention should also be drawn to the fact that if the grounds of relief subsist for more than six months, either party has the right to terminate the contract with notice (art. 13.4 of Part B).
Applicable law
As already mentioned above, the ICC model contract subjects transactions to the 1980 Vienna Convention (CISG). The model contract is drafted on the assumption that the parties’ rights must be governed by the 1980 Vienna Convention and, as to questions not covered by the Convention, by the law of the country where the seller has his place of business (art. 1.2 (a, b) of Part B).
Although the 1980 Vienna Convention does not cover all aspects of sale contracts, it is a law made especially for international transactions, hence a law promoting uniformity and consistency. That is why parties are not recommended to choose a domestic law to govern their contract instead of the Convention. If, however, parties wish to submit their contract to a national law in place of the 1980 Vienna Convention, or, if they wish to choose a law other than that of the seller to govern questions not covered by the Convention, the following wordings are recommended:
"This sales contract is governed by the domestic law of _____ (country)" (A-14(a)).
"Any questions not covered by CISG will be governed by the law of _____ (country) (A-14(b)).
Resolution of disputes
The dispute resolution mechanism is specified in A-15 of Part A and in art. 14 of Part B. Parties may choose between arbitration and litigation for the resolution of disputes arising under the contracts. In either case the parties are advised to specify the venue of arbitration/litigation.
If the parties fail to choose between the alternatives, the ICC Arbitration will apply. The more usual way is resolution of a dispute by International Commercial Arbitration under the arbitration clause of a contract.
One should remember that the ICC Model International Sale Contract is, in fact, a model drawn to illustrate provisions that seller and buyer should specifically draft into their contracts.
Check Questions
What type of contract does the ICC model contract envisage?
Which part of the ICC model contract sets out standard terms common to all contracts?
Which part of the ICC model contract sets out terms special to a particular contract of sale?
What should normally be included in a contract for the international sale of goods?
What are the principal methods of payment?
Which documents are required under the ICC model contract?
What is a force-majeure clause and why is it important?
How are disputes resolved under a contract for the international sale of goods?
II. THE CIVIL CODE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION AND CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS
Attention should be drawn to some of the most frequently used provisions of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation if Russian legislation is the governing law. Such provisions illustrate admirably the relations between parties and how such relations are regulated when Russian law applies.
FORM OF TRANSACTIONS
The form of a foreign economic transaction, if even one of its signatories is a Russian legal person or a Russian citizen, must be subject to Russian law, regardless of where the transaction is concluded.
This precept is established by article 1203(2) of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation:
"The form of a foreign economic transaction, if even one of the parties to which is a Russian legal person or a Russian citizen, shall be subject, regardless of the place of conclusion of the transaction, to Russian law".
The Civil Code of the Russian Federation Division VI article 1209(2).
"Форма внешнеэкономической сделки, хотя бы одной из сторон которой является российское юридическое лицо или российский гражданин, подчиняется, независимо от места совершения этой сделки, российскому праву".
ГК РФ статья 1209(2).
NO PAROLE CONTRACTS
A Russian firm cannot conclude a parole contract (i.e. an oral contract) with a foreign company, it may participate only in written contracts duly signed.
"Nonobservance of the simple written form of a foreign commercial transaction shall entail the invalidity of the transaction".
The CC RF Art. 162(3)
"Несоблюдение простой письменной формы внешнеэкономической сделки влечет недействительность сделки".
ГК РФ ст.162(3)
MIXED CONTRACTS
Article 421(3) of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation stipulates that
"The parties may conclude a contract that contains elements of various contracts provided for by a statute or other legal acts (a mixed contract)".
The CC RF Art. 421(3)
"Стороны могут заключить договор, в котором содержатся элементы различных договоров, предусмотренных законом или иными правовыми актами (смешанный договор)".
ГК РФ ст.421(3)
Regarding mixed contracts (providing not only for the sale of goods but also for services), article 3(2) of the 1980 Vienna Convention stipulates that the Convention does not apply to contracts in which the greater part of the obligations of the party who furnishes the goods consists in the supply of labour or other services.
In this regard, the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (article 421(3)) sets out that the rules on contracts whose elements are contained in the mixed contract apply to the appropriate arrangement between the parties under the mixed contract, unless something otherwise follows from the parties’ agreement or from the substance of the mixed contract.
"The rules on contracts whose elements are contained in the mixed contract shall be applied to the relations of parties under the mixed contract unless otherwise follows from an agreement of the parties or the nature of the mixed contract".
CC RF art. 421(3)
"К отношениям сторон по смешанному договору применяются в соответствующих частях правила о договорах, элементы которых содержатся в смешанном договоре, если иное не вытекает из соглашения сторон или существа смешенного договора".
ГК РФ ст.421(3)
APPLICABLE LAW
Article 1211 of the section on "Private International Law" in Part 3 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation directly points to the law of the country with which the contract is most closely connected as the law which must govern the contract in the absence of an agreement of the parties on the applicable law.
The law of the country with which the contract is most closely connected is the law of the country where the party whose performance is decisive for the content of the contract has its place of residence or basic place of activity, if the parties have not agreed otherwise. In a contract of purchase and sale the seller must be regarded as such a party.
Check Questions
What does the Russian legislation say about the form of transactions?
Can a Russian firm conclude a parole contract with a foreign company?
III. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What Russian legislative provisions apply to foreign trade?
The Russian Federation has no special code for foreign trade, and the applicable commercial law is primarily Russian civil legislation.
2. What determines the sphere of application of an international agreement?
The sphere of application of an international agreement is determined by the agreement’s own precepts.
3. What is the legal status of international agreements under Russian law?
In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, article 15(4) and article 7(1) of the Civil Code of the R.F. Russia’s international agreements form part and parcel of its legal system.
4. Is the 1980 Vienna Convention imperative or dispositive in character?
Article 6 of the 1980 Vienna Convention states that the parties to a contract may exclude the application of this Convention or, subject to Article 12, derogate from or vary the effect of any of its provisions. This testifies to the dispositive character of the 1980 Vienna Convention.
5. On what assumption is the 1980 Vienna Convention based?
The 1980 Vienna Convention, accepted throughout the world, assumes that even after its incorporation into the national legal systems, it becomes an integral part of those systems only formally. Substantively, the Convention does not lose its original character of a special body of law autonomously developed at the international level and intended to be applied in a uniform manner throughout the world.
6. Do the parties to a contract need to refer to the 1980 Vienna Convention if it is applicable?
No, they don’t. The status of this Convention is such that it applies whether or not the parties mention it.
7. Is Russia a signatory to the 1980 Vienna Convention?
On December 24, 1991 the Russian Federation decided to continue the membership previously held by the USSR.
8. How many countries have signed the 1980 Vienna Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods?
Since 19 May 1999 fifty six countries, including the Russian Federation and practically all its major trade partners, have signed the 1980 Vienna Convention.
9. The 1980 Vienna Convention and the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.How do their spheres of application differ?
In identifying spheres of application of the 1980 Vienna Convention and the rules set forth in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation governing trade, one should bear in mind the fundamental differences manifested in these approaches. Here are some examples.
The 1980 Vienna Convention
The Civil Code of the R.F.
The parties to a contract must have their commercial enterprises located in different countries for the Vienna Convention to apply. It follows from this that a contract concluded by subjects of different countries whose commercial enterprises are located in the same country is not recognized – within the meaning of the 1980 Vienna Convention – as an international contract of sale. Therefore, the contract would not be subject to the provisions of the 1980 Vienna Convention.
Such a contract, if falling under Russian law, is governed by provisions set forth in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.
The 1980 Vienna Convention’s application is expressly ruled out in article 2 with respect to specific goods, namely, ships, vessels, hovercraft or aircraft, electricity, and securities.
At the same time, transactions involving such goods are either clearly subject to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation or, as stipulated by the provisions on securities in Article 454(2) of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation are to be governed by general regulations on the sale of goods.
This Convention does not apply to sales of goods bought for personal, family, or household use unless the seller, at any time before or at the conclusion of the contract, neither knew nor ought to have known that the goods were bought for any such use. Nor does it apply to sales by auction, on execution or otherwise by the authority of law according to article 2.
Civil legislation determines the legal position of the participants in civil commerce, the grounds for the origin and the procedure for realization of the right of ownership and other rights in things, of exclusive rights to the results of intellectual activity (intellectual property), regulates contractual and other obligations and also other property relations and related personal non-property relations based upon equality, autonomy of will and the property independence of the participants [CC RF art. 2(1)]
The 1980 Vienna Convention only governs the formation of a contract of sale and the rights and obligations of seller and buyer arising from such a contract. In particular, it is not concerned with the validity of such a contract, its provisions or usage, or with the effect the contract may have on the goods sold (article 4). Moreover, under the 1980 Vienna Convention, the seller is not liable for death or personal injury caused by the goods to any person.
10.Are there any world-wide contractual standards?
The following documents provide a system of rules especially tailored to the needs of international commercial transactions:
ICC Incoterms
UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts
ICC Model International Sale Contract
11. Why is it important to use uniform rules in governing contracts of sale?
The use of uniform rules which govern contracts for the international sale of goods and take into account the different social, economic and legal systems contributes to the removal of legal barriers in international trade. Such rules also promote the development of international trade on the basis of equality and mutual benefit, and facilitate friendly relations among states.
12. Who prepared the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts and when?
The UNIDROIT Principles were drawn up by the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law in Rome in 1994.
The Working Group, which included representatives of all the major legal systems of the world, was composed of leading experts in the field of contract law and international trade law.
13. Are the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts legislative means of unification of law?
No, they are non-legislative means for unification of law. As they do not involve the endorsement of Governments, they are not a binding instrument, their acceptance depends upon their persuasive authority.
14. What is the purpose of Incoterms?
The purpose of Incoterms is to provide a set of international rules for the interpretation of the most commonly used trade terms in foreign trade. Thus, the uncertainties of different interpretations of such terms in various countries can be avoided or at least reduced to a considerable degree.
Their basic purpose is to explain how responsibility, cost and risk should be divided between the parties in connection with the delivery of goods from seller to buyer.
15. To what type of contracts do Incoterms apply?
Incoterms apply to only one type of contract, namely contracts of sale.
16. What is the scope of Incoterms?
Incoterms are limited to matters relating to the rights and obligations of the parties to the contract of sale with respect to the delivery of goods sold.
17. What are the two most common misconceptions about Incoterms?
First, Incoterms are frequently misunderstood as applying to the contract of carriage rather than to the contract of sale.
Second, they are sometimes wrongly assumed to provide for all the duties which parties may wish to include in a contract of sale.
18. Who compiled Incoterms and when?
The ICC’s Commission on International Commercial Practice, whose membership is drawn from all parts of the world and all trade sectors.
The Incoterms were first published in 1936, since then they have been regularly updated to bring the rules in line with current international trade practices. Amendments and additions were made in 1953, 1967, 1976, 1980, 1990 and presently in 2000.
19. Why have successive revisions of Incoterms been thought necessary?
The main reason for successive revision of Incoterms has been the need to adapt them to contemporary commercial practice.
20. What are the specifics of Incoterms 2000?
They take account of the recent
spread of customs-free zones,
increased use of electronic communications in business transactions, and
changes in transport practices.
21. What is the legal character of Incoterms?
Incoterms are non-legislative means of unifying international rules for the interpretation of trade terms. They do not involve the endorsement of Governments. Hence they are not a binding instrument. Their acceptance depends upon their persuasive authority.
22. Why are Incoterms important and useful?
They facilitate the conduct of international trade.
23. What is the reputation of Incoterms?
Incoterms are now used world-wide.
24. Why do Incoterms now enjoy world-wide recognition?
They respond to business needs everywhere.
25. In what form can a contract for the international sale of goods be drawn?
Either in the form of a single document embracing all the terms and conditions for the sale of goods, or in the form of two documents, one of which supplements the other: special conditions and general conditions.
26. Who compiled the model international sale contract and when?
The International Chamber of Commerce in 1997.
27. What is the scope of the ICC Model International Sale Contract?
This model contract is directed at contracts for the sale of manufactured goods intended for resale, where the buyer is not a consumer and where the contract itself is a separate transaction rather than part of a long-term supply arrangement.
28. What is the legal nature of the ICC Model International Sale Contract?
The model contract is a non-legislative means of unifying contractual conditions for the global export-import sector.
29. Which part of the ICC Model International Sale Contract sets out standard terms common to all contracts of sale?
Part B. General Conditions.
30. Which part of the ICC Model International Sale Contract sets out terms special to a particular contract of sale?
Part A. Specific Conditions.
31. What are the principal methods of payment?
The principal methods of payment are:
payment on open account
payment in advance
documentary collection
irrevocable documentary credit
32. Which documents are required under the ICC Model International Sale Contract?
In the model contract the parties are advised to choose from the following list:
Transport documents in common use, with an indication of the type of transport for which they are appropriateCommercial InvoicePacking listInsurance documentCertificate of originCertificate of inspection
33. What is a force-majeure clause and why is it important?
"Force-majeure" means an event beyond the control of a party to a contract. Such events may include wars or revolutions, fires, floods, epidemics, quarantine restrictions, freight embargoes.
The force-majeure clause of the ICC Model International Sale Contract is intended to allocate losses in the case of commonly recognized instances of force-majeure.
34. How are disputes resolved under a contract for the international sale of goods?
Parties may choose between arbitration and litigation for the resolution of disputes arising under the contracts.
The more usual way is resolution of a dispute by International Commercial Arbitration under the Arbitration clause of a contract.
35. What does the Russian legislation say about the form of transactions?
The form of a foreign economic transaction, if even one of its signatories is a Russian legal person or a Russian citizen, must be subject to Russian law, regardless of where the transaction is concluded.
36. Can a Russian firm conclude a parole contract (i.e.an oral contract)with a foreign company?
No, it may participate only in written contracts duly signed.
"Nonobservance of the simple written form of a foreign commercial transaction shall entail the invalidity of the transaction". [The CC RF art. 162(3)]
IV. LANGUAGE FOCUS
PART 1.VOCABULARY NOTES
см. INTRODUCTION
contract N
All these combinations with the word contract are fully interchangeable and can be translated into Russian as договоркупли-продажи.
The terms contract and article (of a contract)may be used with the following verbs:
The verbsenvisage, providewhen used with the nouns contract and article are interchangeable. The verb stipulatesuggests an obligatory character.
TT The word article may also be used with the following verbs:
NB
In contractual English the word clause is often used as a synonym for article. Both words mean a section of a legal document.
NB
The verbs below form strong partnerships with the noun contract. All five collocations can be translated into Russian as заключить/ать договор, though they are to be used in different situations, thus implying slightly different things:
NB
The collocation a profitable contract means that there will be a profit.
The collocation a lucrative contract means that the profit will be substantial.
см. INTRODUCTION
Below are Russian equivalents of some of the collocations with the word law:
law-abiding
законопослушный, подчиняющийся законам, уважающий законы
law and order
правопорядок
force of law
сила закона
law-breaker
правонарушитель, преступник
law-enforcement agencies
правоохранительные органы
law-giver N
law-maker N
законодатель
contract law
договорное право
law of nature
закон природы
см. INTRODUCTION
by agreement of the parties
по соглашению сторон
NB
No article is used before the word agreement in this instance.
см. INTRODUCTION
Russian equivalents of some of the collocations:
legal advice
совет юриста
a legal aid bureau
юридическая консультация
the legal system of a country
законодательство страны
a legal person
юридическое лицо
legal aspects
правовые аспекты/ моменты
legal barriers
юридические барьеры
legal provisions
юридические положения/ правовые нормы
legal systems
правовые системы
см. INTRODUCTION
substantive ADJ
substance N
– from a substantive point of view по существу
– in regard to substance
NB
These two expressions are interchangeable.
см. INTRODUCTION
expressly ADV
точно, ясно
NB
The word is very frequently used in legal English.
см. RUSSIAN LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
provision N
item of agreement, law etc.
положение, условие
legislative provisions
положения законодательства
см. RUSSIAN LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
code N
кодекс, свод законов
a civil code
гражданский кодекс
a criminal code
уголовный кодекс
a code of behaviour/conduct/morals/ethics
нормы поведения
Christianity’s moral code
The Civil Code of the Russian Federation (CC RF)
см. RUSSIAN LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
an integral part
part and parcel
of smth неотъемлемая часть
NB
These two expressions are almost interchangeable.
см. RUSSIAN LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
provide V
предусматривать
e. g.
The Act provides that…
These rules are provided by …
provided by statute
предусмотрено законом
provided CONJ
providing CONJ
при условии что…; если…
см. RUSSIAN LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
instead of
in lieu of
in place of
вместо
NB
These expressions are fully interchangeable.
см. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS, VIENNA, 1980
derogate from
юр. частично отменять (закон и т. п.)
частично отказываться от…
см. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS, VIENNA, 1980
according to…
in accordance with…
in conformity with…
in keeping with…
consistent with…
consonant with…
under…
in agreement with…
в соответствии с…; согласно…
NB
In relation to contracts these expressions are virtually interchangeable meaning that they do not contradict any of the terms of the article/ contract.
см. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS, VIENNA, 1980
dispositive ADJ
Ant.imperativeADJ
диспозитивный
обязывающий
NB
to be of a dispositive character
but
to be dispositive in character
см. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS, VIENNA, 1980
in relation to
as to
concerning
in terms of
with reference to
относительно…/ в отношении к…/ что касается… / к вопросу о…
NB
These expressions are virtually interchangeable.
см. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS, VIENNA, 1980
by virtue of
in virtue of
в силу; на основании чего-либо
см. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS, VIENNA, 1980
place N
venue N
место
NB
Both words mean place of action, but the word place has a broader applicability. The word venue is formal and restricted to mean a place of particular action.
см. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS, VIENNA, 1980
seller and buyer
from seller to buyer
NB
The article is often omitted with paired homogeneous members.
см. TERMS THE WORLD TRADES BY
premises N PL
the premises of a business are all the buildings and land that it occupies on one site
premise(also spelled premiss) N
a statement or idea on which reasoning is based
a formal word
e. g. The premise is that they will work harder to improve if they must compete.
NB
The word premise may be used with three prepositions – on, under, from – with almost the same meaning:
– plan smth on the premise that …
– proceed under the premise that …
– start from the premise that …
см. TERMS THE WORLD TRADES BY
– the scope of (application) of
– the sphere of application of
сфера применения
см. TERMS THE WORLD TRADES BY
Russian equivalents of some of the collocations with the noun delivery:
delay in delivery
задержка в сдаче/ в доставке
short delivery
доставка неполного количества
part delivery
частичная сдача
payable on delivery
с уплатой при доставке
overdue delivery
запоздалая доставка
см. INCOTERMS 2000
Russian equivalents of some of the collocations with the word price:
all-round price
цена, предусмотренная договором
contract price
договорная цена
estimate prices
сметные цены
NB
The combination at a price means: it is for sale, but it is expensive.
см. INCOTERMS 2000
Russian equivalents of some of the collocations with the noun payment:
payment on open account
платеж/ расчеты в форме открытого счета
payment in advance
предоплата, 100 % аванс, досрочный платеж
documentary collection
документарное инкассо
Irrevocable documentary credit
(= documentary letter of credit)
безотзывный документарный аккредитив
см. INCOTERMS 2000
см. STRUCTURE OF THE ICC MODEL CONTRACT
см. STANDARD CONTENT OF A SALE CONTRACT
см. STANDARD CONTENT OF A SALE CONTRACT
см. STANDARD CONTENT OF A SALE CONTRACT
см. STANDARD CONTENT OF A SALE CONTRACT
см. STANDARD CONTENT OF A SALE CONTRACT
см. STANDARD CONTENT OF A SALE CONTRACT
см. STANDARD CONTENT OF A SALE CONTRACT
см. STANDARD CONTENT OF A SALE CONTRACT
см. NO PAROLE CONTRACTS
см. NO PAROLE CONTRACTS
см. APPLICABLE LAW
см. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
см. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
WORD PARTNERSHIP EXERCISES
PART 2. Which word will suit all the three sentences?
♦ 1. Which word will suit all the three sentences?
What is the legal status of international agreements under Russian __________?
Contracts are normally governed by a particular domestic __________ the choice of which is settled by agreement of the parties.
The Convention is based on the assumption that uniform __________, even after its incorporation into the various national legal systems, only formally becomes an integral part of the latter.
Which word will suit all the three sentences?
♦ 2. Which 5-letter word can come before all the following words?
English
barriers
systems
person
character
– – —
position
aspects
provisions
status
♦ 3. What 11-letter noun will form strong word partnerships with all these adjectives?
effective
civil
liberal
– – – – – —
strict
tough
♦ 4. Use the following words in the sentences below:
legal
legislative
non-legislative
legally
legislation
1) What Russian __________ provisions apply to foreign trade?
The Russian Federation has no special code for foreign trade, and the applicable commercial law is primarily Russian civil __________.
2) What is the __________ status of international agreements under Russian law?
3) If an international treaty of the Russian Federation has established rules other than those provided by civil __________, the rules of the international treaty shall apply.
4) Civil __________ determines the __________ position of the participants in civil commerce.
5) Incoterms are __________ means of unifying international rules for the interpretation of trade terms.
6) The use of uniform rules which govern contracts for the international sale of goods contributes to the removal of __________ barriers.
♦ 5. Use the following words in the sentences below:
apply
applied
application
applying
applicable
1) What determines the sphere of __________ of an international agreement?
2) The sphere of __________ of an international agreement is determined by the agreement’s own precepts.
3) What Russian legislative provisions __________ to foreign trade?
The Russian Federation has no special code for foreign trade, and the __________ commercial law is primarily Russian civil legislation.
4) Article 6 of the 1980 Vienna Convention states that the parties to a contract may exclude the __________ of this Convention or, subject to article 12, derogate from or vary the effect of any of its provisions.
5) Do the parties to a contract need to refer to the 1980 Vienna Convention if it is __________?
The status of this Convention is such that it __________ whether or not the parties mention it.
6) To what type of contracts do Incoterms __________?
They __________ to only one type of contract, namely contracts of sale.
7) Incoterms are frequently misunderstood as ___________ to the contract of carriage rather than to the contract of sale.
8) This document is intended to be __________ in a uniform manner throughout the world.
9) This provision directly points to an international agreement as a source for determining the governing law __________ to relations with foreign involvement.
♦ 6. Complete the following using the word govern and its derivatives:
1) Why is it important to use uniform rules in __________ contracts of sale?
2) The use of uniform rules which __________ contracts for the international sale of goods contributes to the removal of legal barriers.
3) What are the sources of law _________ contracts for the international sale of goods?
4) This provision directly points to an international agreement as a source for determining the __________ law applicable to relations with foreign involvement.
5) Contracts are normally __________ by a particular domestic law the choice of which is settled by agreement of the parties.
6) Parties to international contracts of sale may also agree that their contract be __________ by the UNIDROIT Principles.
♦ 7. Try to remember what words make collocations with the word binding:
♦ 8. Find three pairs of opposites in the following words:
legislative
dispositive
binding
non-legislative
imperative
optional
♦ 9. What eight-letter word will suit all the following expressions?
♦ 10. All the verbs below form strong partnerships with the word contract. The vowels are missing from each verb. How many can you complete?
♦ 11. The first two verbs on the list form strong word partnerships with the word contract. How many more can you recollect?
♦ 12. All the words below form strong collocations with the words price and prices, but the vowels are missing from each word. How many can you work out?
♦ 13. How many other useful collocations can you make with the word price? The first collocation is given.
♦ 14. Match up the words in each column to make six useful collocations:
♦ 15. Choose one noun to form a strong word partnership with all the verbs in each example:
PART 3.HELPFUL FORMULAS FOR NEGOTIATING CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS
1. As to the subject of the contract we would point out that…
В отношении предмета договора мы хотели бы отметить, что …
2. Definitions must be precise.
Условия договора должны быть определены максимально точно.
3. Any change in the volume of delivery of goods will inevitably cause changes in the price.
Любое изменение объема поставки товара неизбежно вызовет изменение цены.
4. The subject of the contract may only be and should only be the goods that are to be paid for under the present contract.
Предметом договора могут быть и должны быть только те товары, которые будут оплачены по настоящему договору.
5. Should you choose to discuss these problems simultaneously with the present draft contract, our task will only be more complicated.
Обсуждение этих вопросов одновременно с данным проектом договора только осложнит нашу задачу.
6. Such a combination of subjects will not contribute to a thorough study of the most important questions connected with delivery of goods.
Такое сочетание вопросов для обсуждения не будет способствовать тщательной проработке основных, наиболее важных моментов, связанных с поставкой товара.
7. We suggest that the corresponding paragraphs be deleted from the contract.
Мы предлагаем соответствующие пункты из договора исключить.
8. We also have several particular remarks.
У нас есть и отдельные частные замечания.
9. We have only minor observations.
У нас лишь незначительные замечания.
10. You suggest a FOB delivery. I’m afraid we have some reservations about your choice.
Вы предлагаете осуществить поставку на условиях ФОБ.Боюсь, что у нас есть сомнения насчет Вашего выбора.
11. At the same time you insist on a firm price.
В то же время Вы настаиваете на твердой цене (предлагаете включить в договор твердую цену).
12. Also, we would like to clarify in this article at what dates and in what way the buyer is to inform the seller what mode of transportation he prefers.
Мы бы хотели также уточнить в этой статье (договора), в какие сроки и каким образом покупатель будет информировать продавца о том, какой способ транспортировки он предпочитает.
13. The draft contract stipulates that upon agreement of the parties, air and motor transport as well as parcel post can be used.
В проекте договора предусматривается по согласованию сторон возможность использования авиационного и автомобильного транспорта, а также почтовых отправлений.
14. In this regard, the following questions may arise:
how will the price and delivery time be settled?how will the modes of transportation be agreed upon?
В связи с этим возникают следующие вопросы:
как будут решаться проблемы цены и сроков поставки?как будут согласовываться способы транспортировки?
15. We can’t accept (agree to) a vague commitment of this kind.
Мы не можем согласиться с такой неопределенной формулировкой обязательств.
16. We don’t believe it necessary (we believe it unnecessary) to include this point in the contract.
Мы считаем ненужным (мы не считаем нужным)включать такой пункт.
17. So much for this article.
Вот и все об этой статье (договора).
18. Though this article contains nearly all possible expenses, we believe that you have omitted possible storage expenses in the port of loading should the vessel not arrive at the port of loading in the stipulated time.
Хотя в данной статье (проекта договора)перечислены почти все возможные расходы, мы считаем, что Вы не учли расходы по возможному хранению товара в порту в случае неприбытия судна в порт погрузки в согласованный срок.
19. In our opinion these expenses should be borne by the buyer, as he is responsible for the timely arrival of the vessel at the port of loading.
Мы считаем, что эти расходы должен нести покупатель, т. к. он отвечает за своевременное прибытие судна в порт погрузки.
20. We also suggest it be stated in the contract that in case of non-arrival of the vessel, the Bill of Lading be replaced by a warehouse receipt, which will also serve as the basis for settling the accounts.
Мы предлагаем также, чтобы в договоре было установлено, что в случае неприбытия судна коносамент должен быть заменен складской распиской, которая будет к тому же служить основанием для осуществления расчетов.
21. We also believe that since we fully bear all the expenses connected with delivery of the goods to the airport, you should give us a free hand in choosing the airport as well as the airline to carry your goods.
Мы также считаем, что, поскольку мы полностью несем все расходы по доставке груза в аэропорт, Вы должны предоставить нам право самим выбирать как аэропорт, так и компанию для перевозки Вашего груза.
22. If this is not acceptable to you, we should stipulate in the contract that if shipment by an Aeroflot plane is for some reason impossible, the seller has the right to choose the carrier at his discretion.
Если это для Вас неприемлемо, необходимо оговорить в договоре, что в случае невозможности отгрузки самолетом Аэрофлота по какой-либо причине, продавец имеет право выбрать перевозчика по своему усмотрению.
23. As to the time of delivery, we could agree in principle to your suggestions in the draft contract.
Что касается сроков поставки, то мы могли бы согласиться в принципе с Вашими предложениями, содержащимися в проекте договора.
24. During inspection, your inspectors usually make changes in the technical documentation.
Во время осмотра товара Ваши инспекторы обычно вносят изменения в техническую документацию.
25. In some cases these changes are quite numerous and call for a revision of the technical documentation.
В отдельных случаях эти изменения бывают довольно значительны и требуют ее доработки.
26. For this reason we suggest that the technical documentation be dispatched a month after shipment of the goods.
Поэтому мы предлагаем отправить техдокументацию через месяц после отгрузки товара.
27. As practice shows, there might be certain changes in the specifications for goods agreed upon earlier.
Практика показывает, что могут быть некоторые изменения в ранее согласованной спецификации товара.
28. We suggest that the price under the contract be determined in Dutch florins and payment be effected in the same currency.
Мы предлагаем цену договора определить в голландских флоринах и осуществлять платеж в той же валюте.
29. We are prepared to quote a firm price.
Мы готовы предложить Вам твердую цену.
30. We cannot agree to the provision in the draft contract to the effect that prices should be firm (should not be firm).
Мы не можем согласиться с положением договора, что цены должны быть твердыми (не должны быть твердыми).
31. Meanwhile the market situation may change, so we suggest sliding prices.
За это время положение на рынке может измениться, поэтому мы предлагаем скользящие цены.
32. It is also necessary to specify the way in which changes in prices should be considered (should be taken into account).
Необходимо также уточнить, как будут учитываться изменения цен.
33.
We have thoroughly studied the draft contract received from you and we must insist that the total value of the contract be increased for the following reasons.
Мы тщательно изучили полученный от Вас проект договора и вынуждены настаивать на увеличении общей стоимости договора по следующим причинам.
34. In determining the full amount of the contract price, it is necessary first to agree upon the currency of the price, and then the currency of the payment.
При определении общей суммы договора необходимо сначала согласовать валюту цены, а затем валюту платежа.
35. Your terms of payment are less favourable to us than the corresponding terms in our offer, because they will surely mean additional expenses to us in obtaining credits.
Ваши условия платежа менее благоприятны для нас, чем соответствующие условия нашего предложения, так как это будет несомненно означать для нас дополнительные расходы на получение кредитов.
36. Instability of this currency on the money market may produce negative consequences both for you and for us.
Нестабильность этой валюты на валютном рынке может привести к негативным последствиям как для Вас, так и для нас.
37. We, therefore, find it necessary to take measures to guarantee your interests in case the currency is revalued and to protect our own, in the event of a devaluation.
Поэтому мы считаем, что необходимо принять меры, гарантирующие Ваши интересы, если за это время произойдет ревальвация этой валюты, и наши интересы, если произойдет ее девальвация.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (Document A/ CONF. 97/18, Annex I).
//-- * * * --//
The Civil Code of The Russian Federation Part 1, 2and 3. Edited and t ranslated by P. Maggs and A. Zhiltzov. M., «Norma», 2003.
//-- * * * --//
UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts. International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT), Rome, 1994.
Standard Bidding Documents. Procurement of Goods. The World Bank Headquarters, U.S.A., 1993.
INCOTERMS 2000. ICC Publications № 560. ICC Publishing SA, Paris, 1999.
The ICC Model International Sale Contract, ICC Publishing S.A., ICC publication № 556(E), Paris, 1997.
Дополнительная информация
Умные люди живут дольше. Смертность людей с высоким уровнем образования в четыре раза ниже, чем у малообразованных. До последнего времени считалось, что на продолжительность жизни человека в основном влияют три фактора: наследственность, образ жизни и экология. Однако ученые пришли к выводу, что умные живут дольше и меньше болеют. Смертность людей с высоким уровнем образования в четыре раза ниже, чем смертность малообразованных. Оказывается, мозг без нагрузки стареет гораздо быстрее. Ученые давно объясняют различия в состоянии здоровья разных людей их принадлежностью к разным социальным группам и разницей в уровне благосостояния. Британские ученые пополнили эту концепцию новыми данными. Оказывается, уровень интеллекта также влияет на состояние здоровья людей. Чем выше уровень интеллекта у ребенка, тем больше шансов у него прожить дольше. Оказывается, что «мальчики-очкарики» – наиболее выгодные женихи и предпочтительные мужчины-производители потомства. Предполагается, что спрос на «ботаников» у представительниц прекрасного пола резко возрастет. До революции в России наличие очков было признаком ума, состоятельности, интеллигентности, благородного происхождения. Сейчас интеллектуалов ценят во всем мире, переманивают из других стран (утечка мозгов), они являются основным фактором экономического роста и благосостояния нации. В России богачи – в основном хорошо образованные люди. Две трети из них имеют высшее образование. У большинства – 86 % – родители принадлежат к интеллигенции. Среди “капитанов” российского бизнеса практически отсутствуют люди без высшего образования. Ученые в качестве определяющих выделяют три основных критерия, влияющих на продолжительность жизни: наследственность (до 20 %), образ жизни (до 55 %) и экологические факторы (20 %). При этом в показателе «образ жизни» на первых местах находятся материальный доход и уровень образования. Кстати, в странах Запада в своей практике страховые компании, оценивая при помощи тестов потенциальную продолжительность жизни клиента, обязательно включают эти показатели в вопросник. Уровень материального благополучия оказывает значительное влияние на образ жизни. Люди с меньшими доходами чаще болеют и реже прибегают к медицинской помощи. Однако на здоровье человека влияют не столько самим деньги, сколько характер их использования в интересах здоровья. Например, люди с более высокими доходами имеют возможность получить лучшее образование. В свою очередь, смертность людей с высоким уровнем образования примерно в 1,5 – 4 раза ниже, чем в группах с низким уровнем образования. Считается также, что человеческий мозг без нагрузки стареет значительно быстрее. Продолжительность жизни напрямую зависит от уровня интеллекта. Влияние оказывает склонность к долговременному планированию жизни у умных людей, они больше прислушиваются и к рекомендациям медиков. Как показали последние исследования, курение также негативно влияет на мозг и снижает интеллектуальные способности человека. Сравнение показало, что курильщики «отстали» от своих некурящих сверстников по всем видам предложенных им тестов. За несколько десятилетий, прошедших с первого обследования, у них значительно сильнее снизились и способность к логическому мышлению, и способность к запоминанию и воспроизведению информации.
Сегодня большой проблемой является семейный алкоголизм, потому что от злоупотребления алкоголем прежде всего страдают дети. Ребенок может пострадать уже во время зачатия, если женщина во время беременности принимала спиртное – есть большой риск нарушения центральной нервной системы и дефекта органов ребенка, вплоть до умственной отсталости. Кроме того, алкоголизм в семье создает комплекс негативных макросоциальных воздействий на ребенка.
Поэтому даже если физическое состояние ребенка не вызывает опасений и развивается благополучно, ребенок с трудом адаптируется социально, у таких детей из-за неправильного воспитания часто появляются поведенческие и личностные отклонения, которые затрудняют развитие нормального поведения и социальной адаптации.
Алкоголь оказывает вредное воздействие на яички и яичники, без разницы как часто и как сильно происходит алкогольное опьянение, во всех случаях наносится существенный вред организму человека. У людей, больных алкоголизмом, происходит жировое перерождение семенных канальцев и разрастание соединительной ткани в паренхиме яичек.
Наибольшим токсическим действием отличается пиво, именно пиво намного проще других спиртных напитков попадает через гематотестикулярный барьер, приводит тем самым к жировому перерождению железистого эпителия семенных канальцев. Кроме прямого токсического воздействия алкоголя на яички, большой удар наносится алкогольной зависимостью по работе печени и ее способности разрушать эстроген.
Как известно, при циррозе печени очень сильно увеличивается уровень эстрогена, как у мужчин, так и у женщин, это способствует торможению гонадотропной функции гипофиза и последующей атрофией половых желёз. Систематическое употребление алкоголя приводит к снижению условных и безусловных рефлексов (из-за тормозного действия подкорковых центров), нарушается также и половая потенция, рано или поздно уже зависит от индивидуальной выносливости организма.
У женщин вредное воздействие алкоголя выражается в расстройствах стабильности и регулярности менструального цикла. У женщин снижается либидо из-за того, что токсическое действие алкоголя на надпочечники ухудшает выработку в них андрогенов, которые обуславливают половое влечение. Нередки случаи, когда злоупотребление алкоголем приводит к развитию вторичной фригидности.
Удивительно крепкими оказываются порой предрассудки. Все в жизни меняется: увеличивается благосостояние, культура населения растет, люди получают образование, и все равно предрассудки как были, так и остались. К примеру, по результатам опросов нередко молодые мамы считают, что можно выпить немного легкого вина в период кормления ребенка грудью.
А пиво многие вообще считают «полезным» напитком, который якобы увеличивает количество молока, благодаря чему ребенок больше и лучше прибавляет в весе. Кагор нередко ошибочно считают целебным соком, незаменимым для быстрейшего восстановления женского организма после родов.
Удивительно, как в условиях такого изобилия информации можно так заблуждаться. Это еще более поразительно, если учесть изученность вреда алкоголя и его влияния на грудное вскармливание. Кормящая мать не должна забывать о том, что алкоголь сильно вредит организму грудного ребенка и в первую очередь оказывает плохое влияние на его нервную систему.
Первый год жизни – прежде всего интенсивный рост и развитие структуры мозга. Головной мозг к концу первого года увеличивается в массе в 2 раза. Алкоголь же препятствует росту и развитию новых клеток в головном мозге, что есть научно доказанный факт. Любая доза алкоголя может придать нервным клеткам абсолютно неадекватную форму и вид.
Даже очень маленькая доза алкоголя, которая попадает в организм ребенка с молоком матери, может привести к серьезным нарушениям в работе центральной нервной системы, и нередко приводят к необратимым последствиям. Алкоголь делает ребенка беспокойным, ребенок плохо спит, возникают судороги, психика развивается неправильно.
Замечено, что многие люди не знают элементарных правил русского языка, например:
1. Количество кавычек всегда должно быть четным, как скобки в математике.
Рядом стоящие кавычки могут быть двух видов – "…" и «…» (лапки и елочки).
Правильно: "слова «слова»" или «слова "слова"»
Неправильно: «слова»» и "слова "слова"
Эти ошибки есть даже в названиях крупных фирм и некоторых статьях и книжках.
2. Если в конце предложения есть информация в скобках, точка ставится после скобок, не ставится перед скобками и внутри перед закрывающей скобкой.
Правильно: слова (слова).
Неправильно: слова. (слова.)
В настоящее время возросло значение образования и самообразования. Умные люди живут дольше. Смертность людей с высоким уровнем образования в четыре раза ниже, чем у малообразованных. До последнего времени считалось, что на продолжительность жизни человека в основном влияют три фактора: наследственность, образ жизни и экология. Однако ученые пришли к выводу, что умные живут дольше и меньше болеют. Смертность людей с высоким уровнем образования в четыре раза ниже, чем смертность малообразованных. Оказывается, мозг без нагрузки стареет гораздо быстрее. Ученые давно объясняют различия в состоянии здоровья разных людей их принадлежностью к разным социальным группам и разницей в уровне благосостояния. Британские ученые пополнили эту концепцию новыми данными. Оказывается, уровень интеллекта также влияет на состояние здоровья людей. Чем выше уровень интеллекта у ребенка, тем больше шансов у него прожить дольше. Оказывается, что «мальчики-очкарики» – наиболее выгодные женихи и предпочтительные мужчины-производители потомства. Предполагается, что спрос на «ботаников» у представительниц прекрасного пола резко возрастет. До революции в России наличие очков было признаком ума, состоятельности, интеллигентности, благородного происхождения. Сейчас интеллектуалов ценят во всем мире, переманивают из других стран (утечка мозгов), они являются основным фактором экономического роста и благосостояния нации. В России богачи – в основном хорошо образованные люди. Две трети из них имеют высшее образование. У большинства – 86 % – родители принадлежат к интеллигенции. Среди “капитанов” российского бизнеса практически отсутствуют люди без высшего образования. Ученые в качестве определяющих выделяют три основных критерия, влияющих на продолжительность жизни: наследственность (до 20 %), образ жизни (до 55 %) и экологические факторы (20 %). При этом в показателе «образ жизни» на первых местах находятся материальный доход и уровень образования. Кстати, в странах Запада в своей практике страховые компании, оценивая при помощи тестов потенциальную продолжительность жизни клиента, обязательно включают эти показатели в вопросник. Уровень материального благополучия оказывает значительное влияние на образ жизни. Люди с меньшими доходами чаще болеют и реже прибегают к медицинской помощи. Однако на здоровье человека влияют не столько самим деньги, сколько характер их использования в интересах здоровья. Например, люди с более высокими доходами имеют возможность получить лучшее образование. В свою очередь, смертность людей с высоким уровнем образования примерно в 1,5 – 4 раза ниже, чем в группах с низким уровнем образования. Считается также, что человеческий мозг без нагрузки стареет значительно быстрее. Вывод: выгодно заниматься повышением образования и самообразования (изучение профессиональной и общеобразовательной литературы).
Образование – это инвестиции в человеческий капитал. По данным статистики, каждый год, затраченный на учебу, повышает зарплату работника в среднем на 10 %. Образование не только повышает производительность реципиента (т. е. человека, который его получил), оно имеет положительный внешний эффект (экстерналию). Внешний эффект происходит тогда, когда действие одного человека сказывается на благосостоянии другого человека или других людей. Образованный человек может выдвигать идеи, которые становятся полезными для других, всеобщим достоянием, ими имеет возможность пользоваться каждый, попавший в сферу действия положительного внешнего эффекта образования. В этой связи особенно негативными последствиями обладает явление, получившее название “утечки умов”, то есть эмиграции наиболее образованных и квалифицированных специалистов из бедных стран и стран с переходной экономикой в богатые страны, имеющие высокий уровень жизни.
Существенной проблемой развития (в т. ч. карьерного) является вредные привычки. Алкоголь необратимо разрушает клетки мозга (в любом количестве), ведет к импотенции у мужчин и соответствующим проблемам у женщин. Для здорового человека не существует полезного алкоголя – он вреден в любых количествах и видах. Это давно известно, но замалчивается из корыстных целей. Наоборот, проплаченные журналисты и “эксперты”, фильмы и сериалы (с огромными рекламными бюджетами) пиарят нездоровый образ жизни – реклама окупается в разы, правда ценой здоровья миллионов. Курение также ведет к печальным последствиям, часто необратимым. Курящие менее трудоспособны, поэтому в развитых странах их стараются не брать на работу, особенно на значимые должности, подобная тенденция заметна в крупных успешных Российских компаниях. Законодательное ограничение курения в общественных местах говорит о повышенной эгоистичности курящих, которые не думают об окружающих – согласитесь, это не самое лучшее качаство для работы с людьми, что прекрасно понимают специалисты по подбору персонала.
Как показали последние исследования, курение негативно влияет на мозг и снижает интеллектуальные способности человека. Сравнение показало, что курильщики «отстали» от своих некурящих сверстников по всем видам предложенных им тестов. За несколько десятилетий, прошедших с первого обследования, у них значительно сильнее снизились и способность к логическому мышлению, и способность к запоминанию и воспроизведению информации.
Рекомендуемая литература
Книги
1. Шевчук Д.А. Английский язык. Ускоренный курс: средний уровень. – М: Аст: Восток – Запад, 2007.
2. Шевчук Д.А. Внешнеэкономическая деятельность: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
3. Шевчук В.А., Шевчук Д.А. Международные экономические отношения: Учеб. пособие. – М.: Издательство РИОР, 2006.
4. Шевчук Д.А. Мировая экономика: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
5. Шевчук Д.А. Международный учет: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
6. Шевчук Д.А. Ипотека: просто о сложном. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2008.
7. Шевчук Д.А. Квартира в кредит без проблем. – М.: АСТ: Астрель, 2008.
8. Шевчук Д.А. Кредиты физическим лицам. – М.: АСТ: Астрель, 2008.
9. Шевчук Д.А. Покупка дома и земельного участка: шаг за шагом. – М.: АСТ: Астрель, 2008.
10. Шевчук Д.А. Автокредит: технологии получения. – М.: АСТ: Астрель, 2008.
11. Шевчук Д.А. Как составить бизнес-план: первый шаг к своему бизнесу. – М.: АСТ: Астрель, 2008.
12. Шевчук Д.А. Корпоративные финансы. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2008.
13. Шевчук Д.А. Мастер продаж. Самоучитель эффективной работы с клиентами. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2009.
14. Шевчук Д.А. Конфликты: избегать или форсировать?: все о конфликтных ситуациях на работе, в бизнесе и личной жизни. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2009.
15. Шевчук Д.А. Экономическая журналистика. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2008.
16. Шевчук Д.А. Оффшоры: инструменты налоговой оптимизации. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2007.
17. Шевчук Д.А. Оффшоры: инструменты налогового планирования. Изд.2. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2008.
18. Шевчук Д.А. Банковские операции. Принципы. Контроль. Доходность. Риски. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2007.
19. Шевчук Д.А. Создание собственной фирмы: Профессиональный подход. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2007.
20. Шевчук Д.А. Ценообразование. Учебное пособие. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2008.
21. Шевчук Д.А. Управление качеством. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2008.
22. Шевчук Д.А., Шевчук В.А. Деньги. Кредит. Банки. Курс лекций в конспективном изложении: Учеб-метод. пособ. – М: Финансы и статистика, 2006.
23. Шевчук Д.А., Шевчук В.А. Макроэкономика: Конспект лекций. – М.: Высшее образование, 2006.
24. Шевчук Д.А. Страховые споры: практическое пособие. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2008.
25. Денис Шевчук. Психолингвистика. Техники убеждения. – М.: ГроссМедиа: РОСБУХ, 2008.
26. Д.А. Шевчук. Источники финансирования бизнеса. – М.: Финансовая газета, 2008. – 48 с.
27. Шевчук Д.А. Оценка недвижимости и управление собственностью. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
28. Шевчук Д.А. Организация и финансирование инвестиций: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
29. Шевчук Д.А. Рынок ценных бумаг: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
30. Шевчук Д.А. Основы банковского дела: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
31. Шевчук Д.А. Основы банковского дела: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
32. Шевчук Д.А. Стратегический менеджмент: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
33. Шевчук Д.А. Учет в банках: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
34. Шевчук Д.А. Учет в банках: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
35. Шевчук Д.А. Основы банковского аудита: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
36. Шевчук Д.А. Основы банковского аудита: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
37. Шевчук Д.А. Микроэкономика: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
38. Шевчук Д.А. Макроэкономика: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
39. Шевчук Д.А. Экономика недвижимости: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
40. Шевчук Д.А. Банковские операции: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
41. Шевчук Д.А. Банковские операции: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
42. Шевчук Д.А. Гражданский процесс: Учебное пособие – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
43. Шевчук Д.А. Семейное право: Учебное пособие – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
44. Шевчук Д.А. Избирательное право и процесс в Российской Федерации: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
45. Шевчук Д.А. Международная финансовая система: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
46. Шевчук Д.А. Бизнес-планирование: Учебное пособие – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
47. Шевчук Д.А. Экономика организации: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
48. Шевчук Д.А. Экономика организации: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
49. Шевчук Д.А. Деловое общение: Учебное пособие. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2006.
50. Шевчук Д.А. Рекламное дело: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
51. Шевчук Д.А. Бухгалтерский учет и аудит: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
52. Шевчук Д.А. Биржевое дело: Конспект лекций. – Ростов-на-дону: Феникс, 2007.
53. Шевчук Д.А., Шевчук В.А. Банковское дело: Учеб. пособие. – М.: Издательство РИОР, 2005. – 128 с.
54. Шевчук В.А., Шевчук Д.А. Банковское право: Учеб. пособие. – М.: Издательство РИОР, 2005. – 73 с.
55. Шевчук В.А., Шевчук Д.А. Финансы и кредит: Учеб. пособие. – М.: Издательство РИОР, 2006.
56. Шевчук Д.А., Шевчук В.А. Банковское дело. Второе издание: Учеб. пособие. – М.: Издательство РИОР, 2006.
57. Шевчук Д.А., Шевчук В.А. Финансы и кредит: Шпаргалка. – М.: Издательство РИОР, 2007.
Интернет-сайты
58. http://www.kreditbrokeripoteka.ru
59. http://www.deniskredit.ru
60. http://www.deniscredit.ru
61. http://www.samoobrazovanie.narod.ru
62. http://www.zaochkurs.narod.ru
63. http://www.mgu-frank.narod.ru
Электронные книги
9. Шевчук Д.А. Английский язык: самоучитель
10. Шевчук Д.А. Английский для экономистов (учебник английского языка)
11. Шевчук Д.А. Бизнес английский: курс бизнес английского
12. Шевчук Д.А. Деловой английский: бизнес английский язык
13. Шевчук Д.А. Методика изучения иностранного языка (ускоренное изучение)
14. Шевчук Д.А. Письмо на английском языке: примеры, как писать (личное, деловое, резюме, готовые письма как образец)
15. Шевчук Д.А. Деловой английский язык: стандартные фразы на английском
16. Шевчук Д.А. Практическая и теоретическая грамматика английского языка (английская грамматика)
17. Шевчук Д.А. Бизнес-кредит: технологии получения
18. Шевчук Д.А. Бухучет, налогообложение, управленческий учет: самоучитель
19. Шевчук Д.А. Маркетинг: конспект лекций
20. Шевчук Д.А. Менеджмент: конспект лекций
21. Шевчук Д.А. Экономическая теория: конспект лекций
22. Шевчук Д.А. Деньги кредит банки: конспект лекций
23. Шевчук Д.А. Экономика недвижимости: конспект лекций
24. Шевчук Д.А. Теория государства и права: конспект лекций
25. Шевчук Д.А. Банковское дело: конспект лекций
26. Шевчук Д.А. Банковское право: конспект лекций
27. Шевчук Д.А. Бюджетирование: самоучитель
28. Шевчук Д.А. Реклама и рекламная деятельность: конспект лекций
29. Шевчук Д.А. История экономических учений: конспект лекций
30. Шевчук Д.А. Исследование систем управления: конспект лекций
31. Шевчук Д.А. Философия: конспект лекций
32. Шевчук Д.А. Стратегический менеджмент
33. Шевчук Д.А. Оценка недвижимости: конспект лекций
34. Шевчук Д.А. Ипотечный кредит: как получить квартиру
35. Шевчук Д.А. Начни свой бизнес: самоучитель
36. Шевчук Д.А. Свой бизнес: создание собственной фирмы
37. Шевчук Д.А. Правовое обеспечение предпринимательства
38. Шевчук Д.А. Кредиты физическим лицам (ипотека, автокредит, нецелевые кредиты)
39. Шевчук Д.А. Покупка дома и участка
40. Шевчук Д.А. Автокредит: технологии получения
41. Шевчук Д.А. Бизнес-поанирование: как составить бизнес-план (для кредита, инвесторов и других целей)
42. Шевчук Д.А. Корпоративные финансы
43. Шевчук Д.А. Мастер продаж. Самоучитель
44. Шевчук Д.А. Конфликты: как ими управлять (конфликтология)
45. Шевчук Д.А. Журналистика: самоучитель-справочник
46. Шевчук Д.А. Оффшоры: инструменты налогового планирования и налоговой оптимизации
47. Шевчук Д.А. Банковские операции
48. Шевчук Д.А. Макроэкономика: конспект лекций
49. Шевчук Д.А. Микроэкономика: конспект лекций
50. Шевчук Д.А. Аудит
51. Шевчук Д.А. Налоговое планирование для бухгалтера: как законно уменьшить налоги
52. Шевчук Д.А. Страховые споры
53. Шевчук Д.А. НЛП. Психолингвистика. Техники убеждения
54. Шевчук Д.А. Источники финансирования бизнеса
55. Шевчук Д.А. Организация и финансирование инвестиций
56. Шевчук Д.А. Экономика организации: конспект лекций
57. Шевчук Д.А. Деловое общение
58. Шевчук Д.А. Международный учет (МСФО)
59. Шевчук Д.А. Международный учет (US GAAP)
60. Шевчук Д.А. Мировая экономика
61. Шевчук Д.А. Финансы и кредит
62. Шевчук Д.А. Учет и операционная техника в банках
63. Шевчук Д.А. Банковский аудит
64. Шевчук Д.А. Кредитование малого и среднего бизнеса
65. Шевчук Д.А. Банковский менеджмент. 100 экз. ответов
66. Шевчук Д.А. Финансовое право
67. Шевчук Д.А. Финансовый менеджмент
68. Шевчук Д.А. Финансы предприятия
69. Шевчук Д.А. Международные экономические отношения (МЭО)
70. Шевчук Д.А. Инвестиции
71. Шевчук Д.А. Анализ финансово-хозяйственной деятельности
72. Шевчук Д.А. Предпринимательское право
73. Шевчук Д.А. Управление персоналом
74. Шевчук Д.А. Актерское мастерство: самоучитель-справочник
75. Шевчук Д.А. Йога для красоты, здоровья и долголетия
76. Шевчук Д.А. Как играть на российских биржах
77. Шевчук Д.А. Организация предпринимательской деятельности
78. Шевчук Д.А. Делопроизводство
79. Шевчук Д.А. Гражданское право
80. Шевчук Д.А. История экономики: учебное пособие (учебник, лекции)
81. Шевчук Д.А. История менеджмента: учебное пособие (учебник, лекции)
82. Шевчук Д.А. Кредитная политика банков: цели, элементы и особенности формирования (на примере коммерческого банка)
83. Шевчук Д.А. Налоговые споры практика
84. Шевчук Д.А. Оптимизация налогообложения предприятия: методы, схемы, пути и способы (анализ)
85. Шевчук Д.А. Конституционное (государственное) право зарубежных стран: учебное пособие (учебник, лекции)
86. Шевчук Д.А. Международное публичное право: учебное пособие (учебник, лекции)
87. Шевчук Д.А. Международное частное право: учебное пособие (учебник, лекции)
88. Шевчук Д.А. Упрощенка: ИП, ООО (бухгалтерский учет)
89. Шевчук Д.А. Высшая математика: учебное пособие (учебник, лекции, курс, задачи, решения и ответы, конспект, примеры)
90. Шевчук Д.А., Цветков В.Я. Телекоммуникационные системы и технологии: учебное пособие (учебник, лекции)
Об авторе
Шевчук Денис Александрович
Опыт преподавания различных дисциплин в ведущих ВУЗах Москвы (экономические, юридические, технические, гуманитарные), два высших образования (экономическое и юридическое), более 30 публикаций (статьи и книги), Член Союза Юристов Москвы, Член Союза Журналистов России, Член Союза Журналистов Москвы, Стипендиат Правительства РФ, опыт работы в банках, коммерческих и государственных структурах (в т. ч. на руководящих должностях), Заместитель генерального директора INTERFINANCE (кредитный брокер, группа компаний, www.deniskredit.ru).
Закончил Московский Государственный Университет Геодезии и Картографии (МИИГАиК), Факультет Экономики и Управления Территориями (ФЭУТ), Менеджер (менеджмент организации) и
МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова, Французский Университетский Колледж (Право), Кандидатский минимум по специальности “Финансы, денежное обращение и кредит”, ряд специализированных курсов по различным отраслям знаний,
постоянно повышает образовательный уровень в разных сферах жизнедеятельности, увлекается хатха-йогой и различными видами спорта.
Автор современных принципов ускоренного качественного изучения и запоминания любых предметов.
При написании работы автору оказали неоценимую помощь: Шевчук Владимир Александрович (три высших образования, опыт руководящей работы в банках, коммерческих и государственных структурах), Шевчук Нина Михайловна (два высших образования, опыт руководящей работы в коммерческих и государственных структурах), Шевчук Александр Львович (два высших образования, имеет большие достижения в научной и практической деятельности).
Автор также пользовался консультациями сотрудников ведущих ВУЗов и организаций г. Москвы и г. Железнодорожный Московской обл. (в т. ч. микрорайон Павлино)