Текст книги "Деловой иностранный язык"

The effect of this turnaround strategy was that by late 1994 IBM had achieved a third quarter profit of $710 m, and a fourth quarter profit of $382 m. IBM revenue in Europe rose by 13 per cent.

However, the return to profitability is substantially due to the large-scale redundancies who will not be re-employed, even if the recovery continues.

A. It also abandoned its policy of lifelong employment for its staff.

B. Its strong position in European manufacturing and employment has made it as much a European business as any European-owned company.

C. It was described by IBM chairman Louis Gerstner as the start of the second stage of recovery.

D. This was aggravated by the rapid growth in PC performance, meaning that corporate customers increasingly used networked PCs rather than buying large mainframes.

E. This will enable common software to run on both machines and was intended to give independence from Intel and Microsoft.

F. Moreover, it was announced by the board to be the final stage of recovery.

Task 15. Talking Point 4

Read the text again and make notes under the headings given below:

▪ Internal sources of IBM organizational structure delayering

▪ External sources of IBM organizational structure delayering

▪ Recovery strategy and of IBM company

▪ Benefits from delayering of IBM

▪ Consult Speaking References p. 126–130.

According to your notes discuss the following:

Is delayering tactics always argued to have recovery effect?

Express your point of view.

Using Internet resources analyse similar cases: make comparison of initial situations and effects of delayering.

Unit 3. Management and Cultural Diversity

Learning outcomes

▪ Understand the importance of interdependence of culture and management

▪ Learn about varieties of cultures and their impact on transactions, negotiations and meetings

▪ Participate in discussions using your personal experience

▪ Master your skills in writing a summary, an essay

Task 1. Reading 1

Getting started

▪ Before reading the text, discuss in small groups what associations you have when you hear the word “culture”.

▪ Have you ever experienced any cultural differences when travelling? Which aspects of life surprise, confuse or may be even shock you?

▪ Think of any consequences of cultural misunderstanding in doing business and list them out. Compare your list with a partner and discuss the points you mentioned.

▪ Define the term “culture” in your own words, compare with your partner’s. Do you have similar ideas?

▪ Read the information about culture below; compare your ideas with those in the article. Then read the text. Consult Vocabulary p. 146–147.

NATURE OF CULTURE

Culture is acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior. This knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and influences behavior. Most scholars of culture would agree on the following characteristics of culture:

▪ Learned. Culture is not inherited or biologically based; it is acquired by learning and experience.

▪ Shared. People as members of a group, organization, or society share culture; it is not specific to single individuals.

▪ Transgenerational. Culture is cumulative, passed down from one generation to the next.

▪ Symbolic. Culture is based on the human capacity to symbolize or use one thing to represent another.

▪ Patterned. Culture has structure and is integrated; a change in one part will bring changes in another.

▪ Adaptive. Culture is based on the human capacity to change or adapt, as opposed to the more genetically driven adaptive process of animals.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY

When people hear the word «diversity,» they may think of categories that are now highly conventionalised race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, religion, political views, etc. The term has been appropriated widely and its meaning has become somewhat diluted, but many of the original issues and concerns that prompted people to recognize, celebrate and covet diversity still remain relevant today. At the same time, many of the same issues that were invisible in the early discussion of diversity continue to be overshadowed by visible categories of diversity.

There are many ways of examining cultural differences and their impact on national management. Culture can affect technology transfer, managerial attitudes, managerial ideology, and even business-government relations. Perhaps, most important culture affects how people think and behave. Table 1, for example, compares the most important cultural values of the United States, Japan, and Arab countries. A close look at this table shows a great deal of difference between these three cultures. Culture affects a host of business-related activities, even including the common handshake. Here are some contrasting examples:

Table 4

Culture Type of handshake

In overall terms, the cultural impact on international management is reflected by these basic beliefs and behaviors. Here are some specific examples where the culture of a society can directly affect management approaches:

▪ Centralised vs. decentralised decision making. In some societies, all important organisational decisions are made by top managers. In others, these decisions are diffused throughout the enterprise, and middle– and lower-level managers actively participate in, and make, key decisions.

▪ Safety vs. risk. In some societies, organizational decision makers are risk-aversive and have great difficulty with conditions of uncertainty. In others, risk– taking is encouraged, and decision making under uncertainty is common.

▪ Individual vs. group rewards. In some countries, personnel who do outstanding work are given individual rewards in the form of bonuses and commissions. In others, cultural norms require group rewards, and individual rewards are frowned on.

▪ Informal vs. formal procedures. In some societies, much is accomplished through informal means. In others, formal procedures are set forth and followed rigidly.

▪ High vs. low organisational loyalty. In some societies, people identify very strongly with their organisation or employer. In others, people identify with their occupational group, such as engineer or mechanic.

▪ Co-operation vs. competition. Some societies encourage co-operation between their people. Others encourage competition between their people.

▪ Short-term vs. long-term horizons. Some nations focus most heavily on short-term horizons, such as short-range goals of profit and efficiency.

Others are more interested in long-range goals, such as market share and technologic development.

▪ Stability vs. innovation. The culture of some countries encourages stability and resistance to change. The culture of others puts high value on innovation and change.

These cultural differences influence the way that international management should be conducted. The accompanying text provides some examples in a country where many international managers are unfamiliar with day-to-day business protocol.

Task 2. Comprehension 1

1. Explain the meaning of the word ‘diversity’. Expand the notion of ‘cultural diversity’. What spheres of person’s life can be discussed from the ‘cultural diversity’ point.

2. The Table 2 shows cultural differences of countries in handshake. Suppose, what this peculiar feature for every country can say about its mentality: way of thinking, behavior, management approach.

3. Through your personal experience say why it is important to take into account information about the cultural differences while dealing with foreign partners.

4. From the point of view of interculturalists the ‘culture’ includes the following types of culture:

Explain how you understand each of these cultures.

Task 3. Reading 2

Getting started

▪ Do you like to live and to work in a foreign country? Why/Why not?

▪ Before reading the text, discuss in small groups what the differences in European and Asian cultures are.

▪ Read the information about peculiar features of the Japanese business culture and fill in the blanks, using the words from the box.

▪ Consult Vocabulary p. 147–148.

to arrange indignant experts appeal face position to trust rudely contract concern impression.

BUSINESS CUSTOMS IN JAPAN

When doing business in Japan, foreign businesspeople should follow certain customs if they wish to be as effective as possible. 1_______ have put together the following guidelines:

Always try 2_______ for a formal introduction to any person or company with whom you want to do business. These introductions should come from someone whose 3 _______ is at least as high as that of the person whom you want to meet or from someone who has done a favor for this person. Let the host pick the subjects to discuss. One topic to be avoided is World War II.

If in doubt, bring a translator along with you. For example, the head of Osaka's $7 billion international airport project tells the story of a U.S. construction company president who became 4 ________ when he discovered that the Japanese project head could not speak English. By the same 5_______, you should not bring along your lawyer, because this implies a lack of trust.

Try for a thorough personalisation of all business relationships. The Japanese 6 ______ those with whom they socialise and come to know more than they do those who simply are looking to do business. Accept after hours invitations. However, a rollicking night to the town will not necessarily lead to signing the 7 _______ to your advantage the next morning.

Do not deliver bad news in front of others, and if possible, have your second-in-command handle this chore. Never cause Japanese managers to lose 8 _______ by putting them in a position of having to admit failure or say they do not know something that they should know professionally.

How business is done often is as important as the results. Concern for tradition, for example, is sometimes more important than 9_______ for profit. Do not 10 _______ solely to logic, because in Japan, emotional considerations often are more important than facts.

The Japanese often express themselves in a vague and ambiguous manner, in contrast to the specific language typically used in the United States. A Japanese who is too specific runs the risk of being viewed as 11_______ displaying superior knowledge. The Japanese avoid independent or individual action, and they prefer to make decisions based on group discussions and past precedent. The Japanese do not say no in public, which is why foreign businesspeople often take away the wrong 12_______.

Task 4. Discussion 1

Discuss in small groups if it is difficult or easy to do business with the Japanese? Which customs of Japanese culture may cause problems? Should businesspeople be consulted about cross-cultural issues before going on a business trip? Compare Japanese business culture with business culture of your country:

Table 5

Business cultures of Russia and Japan

Task 5. Vocabulary 1

A. Find synonyms to the following words from the text:

symbol

to organise

specialist

angry

call

rank

to believe

relation

agreement

roughly

B. Fill in the blanks in the sentences using the words from the box:

culture cultural cultured intercultural culturally

1. A misunderstanding that was ______ rather than intellectual.

2. The two firms have very different corporate ________.

3. The two cities are ________ very similar.

4. The website aims to promote ________ understanding.

5. ________ people know a lot about music, literature and arts, and they are well educated and polite.

Task 6. Writing 1

Read thoroughly the text again, summartise the information about the peculiar features of the Japanese business customs and through it describe the mentality of the Japanese in an essay (200–250 words). Consult Writing References, see Appendix II p. 131–134.

Task 7. Talking Point 1

Prepare small presentations in pairs comparing Russian and Japanese business cultures. If it is necessary, use cultural guides, internet resources. Consult Speaking References p. 126–130.

Task 8. Talking Point 2 – Brain storming

▪ Modern societies are not homogeneous, people of different nationalities, races and cultures live and work side by side. Sometimes different conflicts happen between them. What are the reasons of conflicts?

▪ Read the information given in tables about things that are valued by different cultures. Consult Vocabulary p. 148–149.

▪ List out priorities in values in your culture.

VALUES IN CULTURE

A major dimension in the study of culture is values. Values are basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and wrong, good and bad, important or unimportant. These values are learned from the culture in which the individual isreared, and they help to direct the person's behavior.

Table 6

Priorities of Cultural Values

Differences in cultural values often result in varying management practices. Table 7 provides an example. Note that U.S. values can result in one set of business responses, and alternative values can bring about different responses.

Table 7

U.S. Values and Possible Alternatives

Task 9. Discussion 2

Multinational companies can either attempt to use similar management methods in all their foreign subsidiaries, or adapt their methods to the local culture in each country or continent. Work in small groups and discuss the following questions:

▪ Which procedure do you think is the most efficient?

▪ Do you think the culture of your country is similar enough to those of neighbouring countries to have the same management techniques? Or are there countries nearby where people have very different attitudes to work, hierarchy, organization, and so on?

Find some additional material (facts, statistics, and opinions of other famous people on the topic of the discussion if possible) to sound convincing and reasonable.

When you state your opinion developing the ideas presented in the text, specify your position on the problems and substantiate it. Consult Speaking References p. 126–130.

Table 8

Some useful hints on defending views and presenting arguments

Task 10. Discussion 3

A. A Dutch researcher, Fons Trompenaars, and his associates, have asked nearly 15 000 business people in over 50 countries a number of questions which reveal differing cultural beliefs and attitudes to work. Here are five of them, adapted from “Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding cultural Diversity in Business”. They concern ways of working, individuals and groups, rules and personal friendships, and so on. What are your answers to the questions? Discuss the questions in small groups.

1. If you had to choose, would you say that a company is (a) a system designed to perform functions and tasks in an efficient way, using machines and people, or (b) a group of people whose functioning depends on social relations and the way people work together?

2. What is the main reason for having an organisational structure in a company? (a) So that everyone knows who has authority over whom, or (b) so that everyone knows how functions are allocated and coordinated?

3. Will (a) the quality of an individual's life improve if he or she has as much freedom as possible and the maximum opportunity to develop personally, or (b) the quality of life for everyone improve if individuals are continuously taking care of their fellow human beings, even if this limits individual freedom and development?

4. A defect is discovered in a production facility. It was caused by negligence by one of the members of a team. Would you say that (a) the person causing the defect by negligence is the one responsible, or (b) because he or she is working in a team the responsibility should be carried by the whole group?

5. Imagine that you are a passenger in a car driven by a close friend who hits and quite seriously injures a pedestrian while driving at least 25 kilometers an hour too fast in town. There are no other witnesses. Your friend's lawyer says that it will help him a lot if you testify that he was driving within the speed limit. Should your friend expect you to do this?

B. Read the sentences given below which characterise different types of managing. What nationalities could the managers below typically be? Argue your choice.

▪ I want to get this contract signed fast and get the plane home!

▪ He looks much too young to be doing a major deal like this!

▪ What an awful idea – reporting to two different bosses!

▪ If I go on selling like this, I’ll earn more than the boss! I can’t let that happen!

▪ There’s no hurry! Tonight, you come to eat at my house, and tomorrow we will play golf!

Offer a sentence or two that can characterise your culture.

Task 11. Reading 3

Getting started

▪ Before reading the text, work in groups of three and discuss what the main problem is that international companies meet breaking into local markets.

▪ What is more fair – pay-for-performance or gradual increase in salaries thanks to years you work in a company and experience?

▪ In what way the relationships between boss and personnel should be organised in companies – on a friendly basis or on a hierarchical way where only rules and instructions are significant?

▪ Read the text and consult Vocabulary p. 149–150.

CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT

Managing a truly global multinational company would obviously be much simpler if it required only one set of corporate objectives, goals, policies, practices, products and services. But local differences often make this impossible. The conflict between globalization and localisation has led to the invention of the word 'glocalisation'. Companies that want to be successful in foreign markets have to be aware of the local cultural characteristics that affect the way business is done.

A fairly obvious cultural divide that has been much studied is the one between, on the one hand, the countries of North America and north-west Europe, where management is largely based on analysis, rationality, logic and systems, and, on the other, the Latin cultures of southern Europe and South America, where personal relations, intuition, emotion and sensitivity are of much greater importance.

The largely Protestant cultures on both sides of the North Atlantic (Canada, the USA, Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Scandinavia) are essentially individualist. In such cultures, status has to be achieved. You don't automatically respect people just because they've been in a company for 30 years. A young, dynamic, aggressive manager with an MBA (a Master in Business Administration degree) can quickly rise in the hierarchy. In most Latin and Asian cultures, on the contrary, status is automatically accorded to the boss, who is more likely to be in his fifties or sixties than in his thirties. This is particularly true in Japan, where companies traditionally have a policy of promotion by seniority. A 50-year-old Japanese manager, or a Greek or Italian or Chilean one, would quite simply be offended by having to negotiate with an aggressive, well-educated, but inexperienced American or German 20 years his junior. A Japanese would also want to take the time to get to know the person with whom he was negotiating, and would not appreciate an assertive American who wanted to sign a deal immediately and take the next plane home.

In northern cultures, the principle of pay-for-performance often successfully motivates sales people. The more you sell, the more you get paid. But the principle might well be resisted in more collectivist cultures, and in countries where rewards and promotion are expected to come with age and experience. Trompenaars gives the example of a sales rep in an Italian subsidiary of a US multinational company who was given a huge quarterly bonus under a new policy imposed by head office. His sales, which had been high for years, declined dramatically during the following three months. It was later discovered that he was deliberately trying not to sell more than any of his colleagues, so as not to reveal their inadequacies. He was also desperate not to earn more than his boss, which he thought would be an unthinkable humiliation that would force the boss to resign immediately.

Trompenaars also reports that Singaporean and Indonesian managers objected that pay-for-performance caused salesmen to pressure customers into buying products they didn't really need, which was not only bad for long term business relations, but quite simply unfair and ethically wrong.

Another example of an American idea that doesn't work well in Latin countries is matrix management. The task-oriented logic of matrix management conflicts with the principle of loyalty to the all-important line superior, the functional boss. You can't have two bosses any more than you can have two fathers. Andre Laurent, a French researcher, has said that in his experience, French managers would rather see an organisation die than tolerate a system in which a few subordinates have to report to two bosses.

In discussing people's relationships with their boss and their colleagues and friends, Trompenaars distinguishes between universalists and particularists. The former believe that rules are extremely important; the latter believe that personal relationships and friendships should take precedence. Consequently, each group thinks that the other is corrupt. Universalists say that particularists 'cannot be trusted because they will always help their friends', while the second group says of the first 'you cannot trust them; they would not even help a friend'. According to Trompenaars' data, there are many more particularists in Latin and Asian countries than in Australia, the USA, Canada, or northwest Europe.

Task 12. Comprehension 2

1. How would you explain the concept of 'glocalisation'?

2. Why might a 50-year-old Japanese manager be offended if he had to negotiate with or report to a well-educated but inexperienced 30-year-old American?

3. Why was the American concept of pay-for-performance unpopular in Italy, and in Asia, in Trompenaars' example?

4. Why do universalists disapprove of particularists, and vice versa?

Task 13. Vocabulary 2

Find words in the text which mean the following:

▪ the use of reasoning rather than emotions or beliefs

▪ understanding or knowing without consciously using reason

▪ respect, prestige or importance given to someone

▪ having a higher rank because one is older

▪ to have hurt feelings because someone is being disrespectful

▪ money or something else given in recognition of good work

▪ additional money given for better work or increased productivity

▪ a feeling of shame and loss of dignity or self-esteem

▪ to give up a job or position

▪ according to accepted moral standards

Task 14. Discussion 4

Work in groups of three and discuss the following questions:

▪ Would you like to work for a company that had a pay-for-performance policy? Does this only work for salespeople, or could it be extended to all jobs?

▪ 2. Would you say that you, personally, were individualist or collectivist? Particularist or universalist? (Remember your answers to the questions in la above.)

▪ 3. What about the majority of people in your country?

▪ 4. Would you like (or do you like) to work in a team? Do you like the idea of matrix management, or would you rather report to only one powerful boss?

▪ 5. Do you believe that it is possible to sum up national characteristics in a few words? Is there usually some (or a lot of) truth in such stereotypes?

Or, on the contrary, do you find such stereotyping dangerous?

Task 15. Writing 2

Write an essay (200–250 words) giving advice to a foreign business person coming to your country to negotiate with local companies. Consult Writing References, see Appendix II p. 131–134.