Текст книги "30 Must-Read Books for Psychologists"

UNIT 5

Thinking, Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman (2011)

Key Ideas:

System 1 and System 2 Thinking

System 1:

Fast and automatic

Intuitive and emotional

Operates without conscious effort

Relies on heuristics (mental shortcuts) and biases

System 2:

Slow and deliberate

Rational and logical

Requires conscious effort

Used for complex tasks and decision-making

Cognitive Biases

Framing Effects: People’s decisions can be influenced by the way information is presented, even if the underlying facts are the same.

Confirmation Bias: People tend to seek out and interpret information that confirms their existing beliefs.

Availability Heuristic: People tend to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily they can recall examples of it.

Prospect Theory

People evaluate gains and losses differently, with losses having a disproportionately greater impact on their decision-making.

This asymmetry leads to risk aversion for gains and risk seeking for losses.

Anchoring Effect

People tend to rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive when making judgments.

This can lead to biased estimates and decisions.

Nudge Theory

Small, subtle interventions can influence people’s decisions without restricting their freedom of choice.

Nudges can be used to promote desirable behaviors, such as saving for retirement or eating healthier foods.

Examples

System 1: Driving a car on a familiar route, making a snap judgment about someone’s trustworthiness.

System 2: Solving a complex math problem, making a major financial decision.

Cognitive Bias: Someone who is afraid of flying might overestimate the likelihood of a plane crash because they can easily recall recent news stories about plane crashes.

Prospect Theory: A person might be more reluctant to sell a stock that has lost value than to sell a stock that has gained value, even if the potential gain or loss is the same.

Anchoring Effect: A real estate agent might anchor the price of a house at a high value, which can influence potential buyers’ perceptions of its worth.

Nudge: A government might send out reminders to citizens about the importance of saving for retirement, which can encourage them to contribute more to their retirement accounts.

Best Quotes

«In the end, it is not the magnitude of our knowledge but the depth of our wisdom that will shape our decisions.»

«System 1 is like an impulsive child who acts without thinking, while System 2 is like a cautious adult who weighs the pros and cons.»

«Humans are an anomaly in the animal kingdom. We have the capacity to think about our thinking.»

«Our ability to construct reality is stronger than our ability to discover reality.»

Criticism

Some critics argue that Kahneman oversimplifies the complexity of human decision-making.

Others question the generalizability of his findings across different cultures and contexts.

The book has been criticized for focusing too much on individual biases and not enough on the role of social and environmental factors in decision-making.

Influence

Nobel Prize: Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2002 for his work on behavioral economics.

Popularization of Behavioral Economics: The book has helped popularize the field of behavioral economics, which integrates insights from psychology into economic models.

Applications in Policymaking: nudge theory has been adopted by governments and organizations to design policies that encourage desirable behaviors.

Interesting Facts

The book was translated into over 40 languages.

It has sold over 5 million copies worldwide.

Kahneman conducted many of his famous experiments while working as a psychologist at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

WORDLIST:

without conscious effort – без сознательных усилий

heuristics – эвристика

mental shortcuts – ментальные ярлыки

biases – предубеждения

slow and deliberate – медленное и обдуманное

underlying facts – лежащие в основе факты

cognitive biases – когнитивные искажения

confirmation bias – склонность к подтверждению

interpret information – интерпретировать информацию

availability heuristic – эвристика доступности

gains and losses – выигрыши и потери

nudge theory – теория подталкивания

subtle interventions – тонкие вмешательства

without restricting their freedom of choice – не ограничивая их свободу выбора

trustworthiness – надежность

snap judgment – мгновенное суждение

reluctant – нерешительный

importance of saving for retirement – важность сбережений на пенсию

magnitude – величина

cautious adult who weighs the pros and cons – осторожный взрослый, который взвешивает все «за» и «против»

complexity – сложность

which integrates insights from psychology into economic models – которая интегрирует идеи из психологии в экономические модели

applications in policymaking – применение в политике

Exercise 6

Are these statements TRUE or FALSE?

1. System 1 thinking is slow and deliberate.

2. Cognitive biases can lead to errors in judgment.

3. Prospect theory suggests that people evaluate gains and losses equally.

4. The anchoring effect occurs when people rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive.

5. Nudge theory can be used to restrict people’s freedom of choice.

6. «Thinking, Fast and Slow» was written by Richard Thaler.

7. The book has been translated into over 40 languages.

8. Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for his work on behavioral economics.

UNIT 6

The Social Animal by Elliot Aronson (1972)

Key Ideas:

Attribution Theory:

People are motivated to understand the causes of their own and others’ behavior.

Attribution theory describes how people make these attributions, which can be either internal (due to personal factors) or external (due to situational factors).

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate internal attributions and underestimate external attributions when explaining others’ behavior.

Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors when explaining our own behavior.

Groupthink:

Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs when a group of people are highly cohesive and have a strong desire for consensus.

This can lead to the suppression of dissenting opinions and a lack of critical thinking.

Groupthink can have negative consequences, such as poor decision-making and unethical behavior.

Cognitive Dissonance:

Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortable state that people experience when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs.

This discomfort motivates people to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes or behaviors.

For example, if someone smokes but knows that smoking is bad for their health, they may experience cognitive dissonance. They may reduce this dissonance by quitting smoking or by rationalizing their behavior (e.g., «I only smoke a few cigarettes a day»).

Discrimination:

Discrimination is a form of prejudice that involves treating someone negatively based on their perceived membership in a category.

Discrimination can be overt (e.g., refusing to hire someone because of their race) or subtle (e.g., microaggressions).

Discrimination can have negative consequences for both the individual and society.

Other Key Ideas:

Social influence: How people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.

Conformity: The tendency to change one’s behavior or beliefs in order to fit in with a group.

Obedience: The tendency to follow the orders of an authority figure, even when those orders are unethical.

Aggression: The intentional infliction of harm on another person.

Altruism: The selfless concern for the welfare of others.

Best Quotes:

«Social psychology is the study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context.»

«Attribution theory is concerned with how people explain the causes of their own and others’ behavior.»

«Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable state that motivates people to change their attitudes or behaviors.»

«Discrimination is a serious problem that can have negative consequences for both the individual and society.»

Criticism:

Some critics argue that Aronson’s focus on individual behavior ignores the role of social structures and power dynamics.

Others criticize his use of laboratory experiments, claiming they fail to capture the complexity of real-world social interactions.

Influence:

The Social Animal has had a profound influence on the field of social psychology. It is one of the most widely cited books in the discipline.

Aronson’s research on attribution theory, groupthink, and self-serving bias has shaped our understanding of human behavior.

The book has also been widely used as a textbook and has influenced generations of social psychologists.

Interesting Facts:

The Social Animal was one of the first textbooks to cover the entire field of social psychology.

Aronson conducted a classic experiment on groupthink during a President Kennedy assassination simulation.

Aronson was an early advocate for the use of social psychology to address social problems such as prejudice and discrimination.

WORDLIST:

attribution theory – теория атрибуции

tendency to overestimate – тенденция переоценивать

underestimate – недооценивать

self-serving bias – эгоцентрическое смещение

negative outcomes – негативные результаты

highly cohesive – сплочённый

strong desire for consensus – сильное стремление к консенсусу

suppression of dissenting opinions – подавление инакомыслия

negative consequences – негативные последствия

cognitive dissonance – когнитивный диссонанс

when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs – когда они придерживаются двух или более противоречивых убеждений

form of prejudice – форма предубеждения

overt – открытый

subtle – тонкий

conformity – конформизм

obedience – послушание

intentional infliction of harm – преднамеренное причинение вреда

selfless concern – бескорыстная забота

fail to capture the complexity – не могут уловить сложность

profound influence – глубокое влияние

entire field of social psychology – вся область социальной психологии

assassination simulation – имитация убийства

Exercise 7

Fill in the gaps with the correct words or phrases from the list below:

profound influence

conformity

self-serving bias

form of prejudice

entire field

suppression of dissenting opinions

cognitive dissonance

1. Elliot Aronson’s book The Social Animal has had a __________ on the field of social psychology.

2. __________ is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors when explaining our own behavior.

3. __________ is a state of discomfort that people experience when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs.

4. Discrimination is a __________ that involves treating someone negatively based on their perceived membership in a category.

5. __________ is the tendency to change one’s behavior or beliefs in order to fit in with a group.

6. __________ is the suppression of opinions that differ from the majority view within a group.

7. Aronson’s book covers the __________ of social psychology, from attribution theory to aggression.

UNIT 7

The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil by Philip Zimbardo (2007)

Key Ideas:

Evil is not a fixed trait but a fluid state. Anyone can be capable of evil acts under the right circumstances.

Situational factors play a powerful role in shaping behavior. Obedience to authority, group conformity, and dehumanization can all lead to unethical conduct.

Good people can be easily swayed to commit evil acts. Even those who would normally act morally can be influenced by situational pressures.

The path to evil is often paved with good intentions. People may rationalize their evil actions as being for a greater good or as a necessary response to a threatening situation.

It is important to be aware of the situational factors that can lead to evil behavior. By understanding these factors, we can take steps to mitigate their influence.

Promoting ethical conduct in institutions is crucial. Institutions should create clear ethical guidelines, provide training on ethical decision-making, and foster a culture of accountability.

Individuals have a responsibility to resist evil. Even in difficult situations, it is important to maintain one’s moral compass and to speak out against injustice.

Zimbardo argues that the key to preventing evil is to create social and institutional conditions that promote ethical behavior and to empower individuals to resist situational pressures that may lead them to act immorally.

Best Quotes:

«Evil is an extreme but understandable reaction to situations that make it psychologically difficult to resist antisocial behaviors.»

«The greatest danger is that when we see evil, we comfort ourselves with the thought that we are not that kind of person. But it is a false comfort.»

«The path to evil is paved with good intentions.»

Criticism:

Some critics argue that Zimbardo oversimplifies the causes of evil and ignores individual responsibility.

Others question the ethical implications of the Stanford Prison Experiment, which formed the basis for the book’s findings.

Influence:

«The Lucifer Effect» has significantly influenced the fields of psychology, criminology, and social policy. It has led to a greater understanding of how situational factors can influence behavior and the importance of promoting ethical conduct in institutions.

Interesting Facts:

The book’s title refers to the biblical figure Lucifer, an angel who fell from grace and became known as the Devil.

Zimbardo conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment in 1971, which demonstrated how quickly ordinary college students became abusive and unethical when assigned to play the roles of prisoners and guards.

The book has been translated into over 20 languages and sold over 1 million copies worldwide.

WORDLIST:

capable – способный

circumstances – обстоятельства

clear ethical guidelines – четкие этические принципы

comfort ourselves with the thought – утешаем себя мыслью

ethical conduct – этическое поведение

ethical implications – этические последствия

empower individuals – наделить полномочиями отдельных лиц

evil acts – злые поступки

fluid state – текучее состояние

foster a culture of accountability – воспитывать культуру ответственности

group conformity – групповое единообразие

mitigate their influence – смягчить их влияние

necessary response – необходимый ответ

obedience to authority – повиновение авторитету

path – путь

paved with good intentions – вымощенный благими намерениями

resist evil – противостоять злу

responsibility – ответственность

situational pressures – ситуативное давление

speak out against injustice – высказываться против несправедливости

take steps – предпринимать шаги

threatening situation – угрожающая ситуация

unethical conduct – неэтичное поведение

who fell from grace – кто пал с небес

can be easily swayed – может быть легко склонен

Exercise 8

Fill in the gaps with the correct words or phrases from the list below:

capable

circumstances

evil acts

fluid state

paved

responsibility

resist

can be easily swayed

1. Anyone can be ________ of ________ under the right ________.

2. The path to evil is often ________ with good intentions.

3. Evil is not a fixed trait but a ________ that anyone can enter.

4. Good people ________ to commit evil acts when placed in certain psychological conditions.

5. Individuals have a ________ to ________ evil.

UNIT 8

Beyond the Pleasure Principle by Sigmund Freud (1920)

Key Ideas:

1. Pleasure Principle and Reality Principle:

Humans are driven by a desire for pleasure and avoidance of pain (pleasure principle).

However, reality often necessitates the postponement or moderation of pleasure seeking (reality principle).

2. Death Drive:

In addition to the pleasure principle, there is a fundamental drive toward self-destruction, aggression, and the return to an inorganic state (death drive).

The death drive is not conscious and operates alongside the life instincts (Eros).

3. Repetition Compulsion:

Individuals unconsciously repeat traumatic or painful experiences in an attempt to master them.

This repetition compulsion is driven by the death drive’s desire to return to a prior state of equilibrium.

4. Nirvana Principle:

The ultimate goal of the death drive is to return to an inorganic state of tranquility and nothingness (nirvana principle).

This state is characterized by the absence of tension and conflict.

5. Beyond the Pleasure Principle:

The human psyche is governed by forces that go beyond the pursuit of pleasure.

The death drive and repetition compulsion are examples of these forces that shape human behavior and experience.

6. Primal Conflict:

The conflict between the life instincts (Eros) and the death drive is a primal conflict that underlies all human behavior.

This conflict manifests itself in various forms, such as aggression, self-destructiveness, and the pursuit of pleasure.

7. Civilization and the Death Drive:

Freud argued that civilization is built on the repression of the death drive.

However, this repression is never complete, and the death drive can find expression in destructive and violent tendencies within society.

Best Quotes:

«The course of events in life is directed by two opposing forces, the striving for pleasure and the striving for a goal.»

«Every instinct is a conservative force since it strives for the preservation of earlier states.»

«The aim of life is death.»

Criticism:

Lack of Empirical Evidence: Freud’s theories were based primarily on clinical observations and lacked empirical support.

Deterministic View of Human Nature: Freud’s focus on biological and psychological determinism limited his view of human agency and freedom.

Pessimistic Outlook: The death drive concept has been criticized for its pessimistic view of human nature.

Influence:

Psychoanalytic Theory: «Beyond the Pleasure Principle» is a foundational text in psychoanalytic theory, influencing generations of therapists.

Other Fields: Freud’s ideas have influenced fields such as anthropology, sociology, and literature.

Interesting Facts:

Freud’s daughter, Anna, famously asked him, «Father, why do you write such difficult books?»

The book was originally titled «A Short Account of the Death Drive.»

The concept of the death drive remains controversial and has been subject to much debate.

WORDLIST:

are driven by a desire – движимы желанием

avoidance of pain – избегание боли

reality often necessitates – реальность часто требует

postponement or moderation of pleasure seeking – отсрочка или умеренность в получении удовольствия

self-destruction – саморазрушение

inorganic state – неорганическое состояние

attempt to master them – попытка овладеть ими

prior state of equilibrium – предыдущее состояние равновесия

tranquility and nothingness – покой и ничто

pursuit of pleasure – стремление к удовольствию

repression of the death drive – подавление влечения к смерти

destructive and violent tendencies within society – разрушительные и насильственные тенденции в обществе

pessimistic outlook – пессимистический взгляд

remains controversial – остается спорным

Exercise 9

Are these statements TRUE or FALSE?

1. Freud’s daughter, Anna, praised his writing style in «Beyond the Pleasure Principle.»

2. The concept of the death drive is universally accepted in psychology.

3. «Beyond the Pleasure Principle» was originally titled «A Short Account of the Death Drive.»

4. The repetition compulsion is a conscious attempt to master traumatic experiences.

5. «Beyond the Pleasure Principle» is considered a minor work in Freud’s oeuvre.

UNIT 9

Mindset: The New Psychology of Success by Carol Dweck (2006)

Key Ideas:

Fixed Mindset: Individuals believe their abilities are fixed and unchangeable. They avoid challenges, fear failure, and give up easily.

Growth Mindset: Individuals believe their abilities can be developed through effort and learning. They embrace challenges, learn from mistakes, and persist through adversity.

The Power of Feedback: When provided with feedback, individuals with a fixed mindset defend their abilities, while those with a growth mindset use it to improve.