Текст книги "Английский язык для юристов. Предпринимательское право"

Е.Г. Анисимова, С. В. Коростелёв
Английский язык для юристов
Предпринимательское право

Предисловие

Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для овладения юридической терминологией в области предпринимательского права студентами гражданско-правовой специализации юридических вузов и студентами лингвистических вузов, изучающими юридическую лексику.

Особенностью данного пособия является обеспечение решения двуединой задачи обеспечения учебного процесса как студентов-лингвистов, так и студентов-юристов.

Во-первых, известно, что работа на международном рынке требует от юриста чрезвычайно высокого уровня подготовки. Данное пособие построено на использовании современных аутентичных иностранных юридических текстов государств системы общего права, и поэтому, оно может оказаться полезным для развития у студентов-юристов навыков сравнительно-правового толкования, дающего представление о том, как решаются сходные проблемы в государствах с различными правовыми системами.

Работая с данным пособием, студент сможет использовать свои знания, полученные в ходе изучения дисциплин гражданско-правового цикла, осуществляя внешнее синхронное микро– и макросравнение институтов права государств с рыночной системой хозяйствования на уровне материальных правовых норм. Полученные в ходе работы навыки функционального сравнения студент может применить при поиске метода (правовой нормы или института) с помощью которых может быть решена возникающая в сфере международного бизнеса проблема.

Во-вторых, пособие построено следующим образом: каждая дидактическая единица посвящена изучению норм одного из институтов предпринимательского права. В начало такой единицы помещен краткий комментарий, который отсылает обучаемого к нормам регулирующим сходный институт российского законодательства. Студент-лингвист перед началом работы над материалами дидактической единицы должен обратиться к указанным нормам, что поможет ему понять ее содержание и успешно овладеть лексикой данного института права. В ходе работы студентам-лингвистам, не знакомым с гражданским правом, рекомендуется обращаться к Гражданскому Кодексу Российской Федерации (предпочтительнее иметь под рукой любую из находящихся на рынке версий «Комментария к Гражданскому кодексу РФ»).

Правовая лексика вводится тематически, по разделам, отражающим нормы отдельных институтов предпринимательского права; и закрепляется в различных видах упражнений, находящих свое применение в таких речевых видах работы: монолог, диалог, дискуссия. Однако следует отметить, что структура пособия не является зеркальным и полным отражением структуры отрасли российского предпринимательского и коммерческого права. Авторами выбраны те институты права, которые представляются как наиболее полезные и интересные для достижения цели освоения студентами предпринимательской лексики.

Пособие не предусматривает обучение грамматике, поскольку его введение в учебный процесс предусматривается на старших курсах вузов, когда студентами уже освоены базовые курсы английского языка, гражданского права, и осуществляется изучение специальных дисциплин, входящих в гражданско-правовую специализацию подготовки юристов, а именно: предпринимательского и коммерческого права, страхования ит.д.

Студентам как юридического, так и лингвистического направлений подготовки при работе с данным пособием рекомендуется использовать наряду с общими словарями также и специальные словари, а именно: Андрианов С. Н., Бернсон А. С., Никифоров А. С. Англо-русский юридический словарь. М.: Русский язык, 1993, либо более поздние издания; Кузнецов А. Практический русско-английский юридический словарь. М.: Avers, 1995; электронные словари MULTILEX, LINGVO; онлайновый словари MULTITRAN (www.multitran.ru), Find Law for Legal Professionals (www.dictionary.lp.findlaw.com).

Unit 1
Tort Law
Деликтное право

Нормы института внедоговорных обязательств: «Обязательства вследствие причинения вреда» (глава 59 ГК РФ) определяют, что вред, причиненный личности или имуществу гражданина или юридического лица, подлежит возмещению в полном объеме лицом, причинившим вред. Устанавливаются ограничения по возмещению вреда причиненного несовершеннолетними и недееспособными гражданами. Возмещение вреда осуществляется либо в денежной, либо в натуральной форме. Законом, либо договором может быть установлена обязанность причинителя вреда выплатить потерпевшим компенсацию сверх возмещения вреда. Лицо, причинившее вред, освобождается от возмещения, если докажет, что вред причинен не по его вине. В возмещении вреда может быть отказано, если вред причинен по просьбе или с согласия потерпевшего, в состоянии необходимой обороны, в состоянии крайней необходимости, а действия причинителя не нарушают нравственные принципы общества.

List of key terms and word combinations:

– actual malice – злой умысел, установленный по фактическим обстоятельствам дела

– comparative negligence – относительная небрежность совместная вина

– contributory negligence – небрежность (неосторожность) истца, вызвавшая несчастный случай; вина потерпевшего; небрежность, предполагающая возмещение доли ответственности

– damage cap – предел возмещения

– damages – возмещение вреда

– defamation – разглашение правдивых сведений позорящих другое лицо

– defective condition – юридически порочные условия

– false imprisonment – неправомерное лишение свободы

– infliction of emotional distress – причинение эмоционального расстройства

– injunction – судебный запрет

– interference with a contract – вмешательство в контракт

– invasion of privacy – нарушение личной жизни

– legal duty – правовая обязанность, договорная обязанность

– libel – клевета письменно или через печать

– misuse of legal procedure – злоупотребление судопроизводством

– negligence – небрежность

– nuisance – нарушение покоя, вред, источник вреда, «зловредность» (в частности, причинение собственнику недвижимости помех и неудобств в пользовании ею)

– proximate cause – непосредственная причина

– punitive damages – штрафные убытки, убытки, присуждаемые в порядке наказания

– doctrine respondeat superior– доктрина «пусть принципал отвечает»

– slander – устная клевета

– strict liability – строгая ответственность; объективная ответственность (независимо от наличия вины)

– survival statute – закон о признании основания иска действительным независимо от смерти стороны

– tort – деликт, гражданское правонарушение

– tortfeasor – причинитель вреда, делинквент; правонарушитель

A tort is a private wrong that injures another person's physical well-being, property, or reputation. A person who commits a tort is called a tortfeasor. The other party is alternately referred to as the injured party, the innocent party, or the victim. If a lawsuit has been filed, the injured party is called the plaintiff and the tortfeasor is called the defendant.

The primary purpose of tort law is to compensate the innocent party by making up for any loss suffered by that victim. Another objective is to protect potential victims by deterring future tortious behavior. Criminal law involves a public wrong, that is, a wrong that affects the entire society. When a crime is committed, government authorities begin legal actions designed to remove the offender from society. It is possible, however, for a single act to be both a tort and a crime.

Businesspeople must be especially aware of tort law because of the doctrine of respondeat superior (let the master respond). That doctrine may impose legal liability on employers and make them pay for the torts committed by their employees within the scope of the employer's business.

No legal liability can be imposed against an individual unless two elements are present: the first element is duty, which is an obligation placed on individuals because of the law; the second element is a violation of that duty. A duty can be violated intentionally, through negligence, or under the theory of strict liability.

Legal duties arise corresponding to each right within each member of our society.

Intentional violations of duty include a variety of intentional torts, all of which have their own individual elements. The principal intentional torts are assault, battery, false imprisonment, defamation, invasion of privacy, misuse of legal procedure, infliction of emotional distress, nuisance, and interference with a contract.

People and property are sometimes injured even when no one intends that the injury occur. Such an occurrence is usually labeled «an accident.» Justice demands that the injured party be compensated. That part of tort law that is concerned with the compensation of accident victims is called negligence.

Under what circumstances can the actions of an alleged tortfeasor be labeled negligent so that the tortfeasor will be held liable? Four elements must be present to establish negligence: (1) legal duty, (2) breach of duty through a failure to meet the appropriate standard of care, (3) proximate cause, and (4) actual injury.

A breach of duty owed to the victim occurs if the tortfeasor has not met the appropriate standard of care under the circumstances. To determine if the alleged tortfeasor has met the standard of care, the court uses the reasonable person test. This test compares the actions of the tortfeasor with those of a reasonable person in a similar situation. The reasonable person test is objective.

Determining this test may require the use of expert witnesses to testify as to the reasonable professional's conduct under the circumstances.

In order for the tortfeasor to be held liable, the unreasonable conduct must be the proximate cause of the victim's injuries. Proximate cause (sometimes referred to as legal cause) is the connection between the unreasonable conduct and the resulting harm.

The injured party in a lawsuit for negligence must show that actual harm was suffered. In most cases, the harm suffered is a physical injury or in a form of property damage, and is, therefore, visible. Harm suffered due to fright or humiliation is difficult to demonstrate.

Several defenses can be used by the defendant in a negligence case. These defenses include contributory negligence, comparative negligence, and assumption of the risk.

The defense of contributory negligence involves the failure of the injured party to be careful enough to ensure personal safety. Contributory negligence completely prevents recovery by the injured party. The injured party's defense to a charge of contributory negligence is called last clear chance. Under this doctrine, a tortfeasor may be held liable if the injured party can show that the tortfeasor had the last chance to avoid injury.

The doctrine of comparative negligence requires courts to weigh the relative degree of wrongdoing in awarding damages, and to assign damages according to the degree of fault of each party.

Another defense to negligence is assumption of the risk, which involves the voluntary exposure of the victim to a known risk.

Under the doctrine of strict liability or absolute liability, the court will hold a tortfeasor liable for injuries to a victim even though the tortfeasor did not intend the harm and was not, in any way, negligent. Strict liability is generally applied when the harm results from an ultrahazardous or very dangerous activity.

Product liability is a legal theory that imposes liability on the manufacturer and seller of a product produced and sold in a defective condition (unreasonably dangerous to the user, to the consumer, or to property). Anyone who produces or sells a product in a defective condition is subject to liability for the physical or emotional injury to the ultimate consumer and for any physical harm to the user's property.

When a wrongdoer has injured another person by committing a tort, the victim can usually be compensated with monetary damages. Damages can include compensation for the repair or replacement of involved property, or for lost wages, medical bills, and any pain and suffering that the victim was forced to endure. If the tortfeasor's acts are notoriously willful and malicious, a court may impose punitive damages (exemplary damages), which are damages above and beyond those needed to compensate the injured party. Punitive damages are designed to punish the tortfeasor so that similar malicious actions are avoided by others.

If a tort involves a continuing problem the injured party may ask the court for an injunction. An injunction is a court order preventing someone from performing a particular act. If the company failed to satisfy an order, it would be in contempt of court. Contempt of court is a deliberate violation of the order of a judge that can result in a fine or in incarceration for the wrongdoer.

Exercise 1. Comprehension questions: 1. What are the kinds of violation of a duty?

2. What is done to determine if the alleged tortfeasor has met the standard of care?

3. What are the forms of the actual harm?

4. When do the courts deny damages in actions for negligence?

5. When is the strict liability applied?

6. What are the punitive damages designed for?

7. Explain what an injunction is.

Exercise 2. Find in the text English equivalents to the following:

Относительная небрежность; совместная вина; небрежность, предполагающая возмещение доли ответственности; предел возмещения; разглашение правдивых сведений позорящих другое лицо; юридически порочные условия; судебный запрет; вмешательство в контракт; нарушение личной жизни; правовая обязанность; клевета письменно или через печать; небрежность; источник вреда; непосредственная причина; убытки, присуждаемые в порядке наказания; устная клевета; объективная ответственность.

Exercise 3. Consult recommended dictionaries and give words or phrases to the following definitions:

Обязательства из причинения вреда; моральный вред; меры ответственности; вред причиненный источником повышенной опасности; вред причиненный актами власти; вред причиненный несовершеннолетними лицами; вред причиненный недееспособными лицами; вред причиненный жизни и здоровью гражданина; право регресса; способы и размеры компенсации вреда.

Exercise 4. Be ready to talk on one of the following topics:

1. Differentiate between the objectives of tort law and those of criminal law.

2. Discuss the element of duty and explain how duties relate to rights.

3. Identify the principal intentional torts and outline the elements of each.

4. Determine the four elements of negligence.

5. Contrast contributory negligence, comparative negligence, and assumption of the risk.

Exercise 5. Make up your own dialog on the case: To prove that the plaintiff died of lung cancer caused by smoking the defendant's cigarettes or that plaintiff's scalp rash was caused by the defendant hair dye will often be a tricky and difficult task. Not only must the plaintiff disclose that the breach of warranty was the cause «in fact», but he must show, that the «breach of the warranty was the proximate cause of the loss sustained.» The lawyer must prove a sufficiently close causal connection to convince the court that it ought to be defined as proximate.

Post hoc propter hoc is not normally enough; the plaintiff must show more that the goods injured the plaintiff in a certain way.

Unit 2
Characteristics, and Status of Contracts
Сущность, характеристика и статус договоров

Нормы общих положений гражданского права (раздел I ГК РФ, глава 9 «Сделки») и института обязательственного права (раздел III ГК РФ), а именно, нормы субинститута общих положений договора (главы 27, 28, 29 ГК РФ), определяют, что договор представляет собой соглашение двух или нескольких лиц об установлении, изменении или прекращении гражданских прав и обязанностей. Субъекты права свободны в определении условий, решении вопросов заключения договора и в выборе партнеров. Заключение договора проходит две стадии: 1) оферта (предложение заключить договор); 2) акцепт (согласие заключить договор). Договор может быть заключен в устной или письменной форме.

List of key terms and word combinations:

– contract of record – договор, облеченный в публичный акт

– executed contract – договор с исполнением в момент заключения

– executory contract – договор с исполнением в будущем

– express contract – явно выраженный договор

– implied-in-fact contract – подразумеваемый договор

– imlied-in-law contract – квази-договор (вытекающий из предписаний закона)

– obligee – лицо, по отношению к которому принято обязательство; кредитор по обязательству

– obligor – лицо, принявшее на себя обязательство; должник по обязательству, дебитор

– privity – имущественные отношения (основанные на договоре, правопреемстве и других личных отношениях)

– promisee – кредитор по договору

– promisor – должник по договору

– quasi-contract – квазидоговор

– unenforceable contract – договор, не могущий быть принудительно осуществленным в исковом порядке

– unilateral contract – односторонняя сделка

– valid contract – надлежаще оформленный, надлежаще совершенный договор

– voidable contract – оспоримая сделка

– void contract – не имеющая юридической силы, ничтожная сделка

A contract is an agreement based on mutual promises between two or more competent parties to do or to refrain from doing some particular thing that is neither illegal nor impossible. The agreement results in an obligation or a duty that can be enforced in a court of law.

The contracting party who makes a promise is known as the promisor; the one to whom the promise is made is the promisee. The party who is obligated to deliver on a promise or to undertake some act is called the obligor. The contracting party to whom the obligor owes an obligation is called the obligee.

A legally complete contract will arise between two parties when all six elements of a contract are present: offer, acceptance, mutual assent, capacity, consideration, and legality. If any one of the six elements is missing, the transaction is not a legally complete contract.

1. An offer is a proposal made by one party to another indicating a willingness to enter into a contract. The person who makes an offer is called the offerer. The person to whom the offer is made is the offeree. Making the offer is actually the first step in creating the contractual relationship between the two parties. The offer must be seriously intended, clear and definite, and communicated to the offeree.

2. In most cases, only the specifically identified offeree has the right to accept an offer. Acceptance means that the offeree agrees to be bound by the terms set up by the offerer in the offer. In many situations, if the offeree changes any of those terms, the acceptance is not really an acceptance but a counteroffer.

3. If a valid offer has been made by the offerer and a valid acceptance has been made by the offeree, then the parties have agreed to the terms, and mutual assent exists between them. Mutual assent is sometimes called a meeting of the minds.

4. Capacity is the legal ability to enter into a contractual relationship. The law has established a general presumption that anyone entering a contractual relationship has the legal capacity to do so.

5. Consideration, i.e. the mutual exchange of benefits and sacrifices, is the thing of value promised to one party in exchange for something else of value promised by the other party. This exchange of valued items or services binds the parties together. If no consideration passes between the parties, then no contract exists.

6. The final element of a binding contract is legality. Parties cannot be allowed to enforce a contract that involves doing something that is illegal. Some illegal contracts involve agreements to commit a crime or to perform a tort. Other activities that are neither crimes nor torts have been made illegal by specific statutes. Among these activities are usurious agreements, wagering agreements, unlicensed agreements, unconscionable agreements, etc.

All contracts are agreements, but not all agreements are contracts. An agreement may or may not be legally enforceable. For example, an agreement to take a friend to a football game would not be legally enforceable because the friend has not given anything in exchange for that promise. To be enforceable, an agreement must conform to the law of contracts.

The general rule of contract law is that the parties to a contract must stand in privity to one another. Privity means that both parties must have a legally recognized interest in the subject of the contract if they are to be bound by it. Outside parties who do not have such an interest in the subject matter of the contract may not be bound by it. Their right to sue in the event of breach (i.e., broken or violated) of contract would also be called into question. An exception to the general rule of privity exists in cases involving warranties and product liability.

Contractual characteristics are divided into four different categories:

• valid, void, voidable, and unenforceable;

• unilateral and bilateral;

• express and implied; and

• informal and formal.

Any given contract could be classifiable in all four ways. Thus, a single contract could be said to be valid, bilateral, express, and formal.

A valid contract is one that is legally binding and fully enforceable by the court. In contrast, a void contract is one that has no legal effect whatsoever. A contract to perform an illegal act would be void. A voidable contract is one that may be avoided or canceled by one of the parties. A contract made by minors and one that is induced by fraud or misrepresentation are examples of voidable contracts. An unenforceable contract is one that, because of some rule of law, cannot be upheld by a court of law. An unenforceable contract may have all the elements of a complete contract and still be unenforceable.

A unilateral contract is an agreement in which one party makes a promise to do something in return for an act of some sort. In contrast, a bilateral contract is one in which both parties make promises. A bilateral contract comes into existence the moment the two promises are made. A breach of contract occurs when one of the two parties fails to keep the promise.

A contract can be either express or implied. An express contract requires some sort of written or spoken expression that indicates the desire of the parties to enter the contractual relationship. An implied contract is created by the actions or gestures of the parties involved in the transaction.

In some situations, laws require certain types of contracts to be in writing. A written contract does not have to be a long, formal, preprinted agreement. A written contract may take the form of a letter, sales slip and receipt, notation, or memorandum. A written contract may be typed, printed, scrawled, or written in beautiful penmanship.

One who knowingly accepts benefits from another person may be obligated for their payment, even though no express agreement has been made. Agreements of this type can be either implied in fact or implied in law.

Contracts implied by the direct or indirect acts of the parties are known as implied-in-fact contracts.

An implied-in-law contract can be imposed by a court applying reasons of justice and fairness when someone is unjustly enriched at the innocent expense of another. It is used when a contract cannot be enforced or when there is no actual written, oral, or implied-in-fact agreement. An implied-in-law contract is also called a quasi-contract. It does not result from the mutual assent of the parties such as an express or implied-in-fact contract.

Under common law principles, a formal contract differs from other types in that it has to be written; signed, witnessed, and placed under the seal of the parties; and delivered.

A special type of formal contract – contract of record – is not a contract in the true sense of the word because it is court created, and it does not have all the elements of a valid contract. Often, such a contract is one that has been confirmed by the court with an accompanying recorded judgment giving the successful litigant the right to demand satisfaction of the judgment.

An oral or written contract that is not under a seal or is not a contract of record is considered an informal contract (also known as a simple contract). An informal contract generally has no requirements as to language, form, or construction. It comprises obligations entered into by parties whose promises are expressed in the simplest and, usually, most ordinary nonlegal language.

After a contract has been negotiated, all obligations must then be satisfactorily performed in order for the contract to be executed. A contract that has not yet been fully performed by the parties is called an executory contract. When a contract's terms have been completely and satisfactorily carried out by both parties, the contract becomes an executed contract. Such a contract is no longer an active agreement and is valuable only if a dispute about the agreement occurs.

Exercise 1. Comprehension questions:

1. How are the two contracting parties called?

2. What are the requirements of an offer?

3. Can it be called an acceptance when the offeree changes the terms?

4. What does the mutual assent suppose?

5. In what cases do people have the right to abandon their contracts?

6. What is a consideration and why is it an important element of a contract?

7. What makes the contract illegal?

8. Can quasi-contract be called a contract in the true sense of the word?

9. What is the contract of record?

Exercise 2. Find in the text English equivalents to the following:

Явно выраженный договор; подразумеваемый договор; лицо, по отношению к которому принято обязательство; кредитор по обязательству; лицо, принявшее на себя обязательство; должник по обязательству, дебитор; кредитор по договору; должник по договору; договор, не могущий быть принудительно осуществленным в исковом порядке; оспоримая сделка; ничтожная сделка.

Exercise 3. Consult recommended dictionaries and give words or phrases to the following definitions:

Возмездный договор; безвозмездный договор; публичный договор; предварительный договор; договор в пользу третьего лица; толкование договора; простая письменная форма договора.

Exercise 4. Be ready to talk on one of the following topics:

1. Identify the six elements of a contract.

2. Distinguish contracts from other agreements made between different parties.

3. Explain the nature of valid, void, voidable, and unenforceable contracts.

4. Contrast unilateral and bilateral contractual arrangements.

5. Outline the difference between express and implied contracts.

6. Contrast the nature of a formal contract with that of an informal contract.

7. Explain how executory contracts differ from executed contracts.

Exercise 5. Make up your own dialog on the case: In Kunian v. Development Corp. of America, the seller of plumbing and heating materials entered into an installment contract with the buyer. Several months later the buyer was $38,000 behind in payments for installments of goods delivered. After the seller demanded assurance of performance from the buyer, the buyer promised that he would pay the outstanding indebtedness if the seller would continue his performance. When a month passed and the buyer had made no further payments, the seller informed the buyer that no further deliveries would be made unless the buyer deposited in escrow a sufficient amount of cash to pay for the delivered goods. The court held that the seller had «reasonable ground for insecurity» and that his suspension of performance was justified.

Exercise 6. Resume in industry buzz:

Types of Ks

1. Express or Implied a. Express is statemts of mutual assent; willingness to enter into a K

b. Implied is no statements; conduct

2. Bilateral, Unilateral or Code a. Code is sale of goods & no bi/uni distinction b. Bilateral formed w/mutual promises of parties, perf. of both fully executory c. Unilateral promise 1 side & fully executed perf. the other (K no formed until fully executed 1 side)

3. Telling if Bilateral or Unilateral a. Unilateral if offer warns only accept by act or if public offer b. Bilateral always if asks for return promise c. Offer indifferent (can't tell if promise or perf. requested) MAJ it's bilateral