Текст книги "Английский язык для студентов экономических специальностей"

б) Ответьте на вопросы:

What are the ways of measuring economic growth?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of rapid economic growth?

Аудиторная работа № 3

20. Составьте предложения со словом there, употребив глагол в соответствующей временной форме.

ОБРАЗЕЦ: (There/not to he) a radical reduction in government spending this year. – > There has not been a radical reduction in government spending this year.

(There/to be) an increase in demand for imports when domestic income and output rise.

Normally, (there /not to exist) such a situation when all labour supplied by households is employed.

(There/to be) considerable changes in the occupational (профессиональный) distribution of the labour force recently.

Over the last 100 years (there/to be) a fall in the average workweek for men, while for women (there / to be) a rise in workweek and hours per week.

(There /may /to be) various types of assets, among them such physical assets as plant, equipment, land, consumer durables and financial assets.

(There/should/to be) inaccuracy in measuring per capita GNP levels in many less developed countries since a large number of transactions are not recorded.

If total output rises only a little faster than the increase in population, then (there / to take place) only a small rise in per head income.

If (there/to be) growth in an economy, (there/to be provided) more both private and public goods such as education, health, etc.

21. Раскройте скобки и употребите глаголы в соответствующей форме.

Gross national product is the value of all goods and services (to produce) in the economy in a given period such as a year.

The value added (to be) the difference between the value of a firm's output and the cost of the inputs (to buy in) to produce that output. The value added (to be) the value that a firm (to add) to its (to buy in) materials and services through its own production and marketing efforts. The sum of all the value added in various sections of the economy such as manufacturing, agriculture, etc. (to know) as the GDP.

Businesses (to produce) goods and services (to use) factor inputs (to supply) to them by households.

The gross national product (to determine) for a particular geographic area, usually a country, but possibly a region or a city, or a group of countries such as the European Union. It (to measure) for a time period, usually a year or a quarter.

An asset (to be) property (to own) by an individual or a business which (to have) money value.

While individual labour supply (to measure) in hours, aggregate supply (to measure) in man-hours, the total amount of hours (to supply) by all workers.

22. Прочитайте текст и найдите три случая употребления конструкции «сложное дополнение». Ответьте на вопросы, следующие за текстом.

Exports and Imports as Part of Circular Flow

In an open economy, that is, an economy having contacts with other countries, exports provide demand for domestic goods and we consider them to be an injection (вливание) to national economy. Aid we consider imports to be a leakage (утечка) from the circular flow since they provide a demand for goods produced abroad.

What determines the desired (желательный) levels of exports and imports?

Demand for exports is determined by conditions in foreign economies and some economists do not believe exports to depend on domestic income. However, there exists a relationship between exports and domestic aggregate demand. An increase in export demand will result in a rise in the aggregate demand.

Imports from other countries may be raw materials for domestic production or goods for direct consumption by households, such as a Japanese television set or a bottle of French wine. We expect demand for imports to rise when domestic income and output rise.

In terms of national income measuring, total leakages from the circular flow must always equal (равняться) total injections to the circular flow. The equilibrium condition for an open economy is as follows:

S + T + Im = In + G + E (total leakages) (total injections)

Desired savings (накопления) plus taxes plus desired imports must equal desired investment plus desired government spending plus desired exports.

How are imports and exports connected with circular flow of payments in an economy?

What is the main requirement to injections to and leakages from national economy for it to remain balanced?

What are injections to and leakages from the circular flow made up of!

23. Просмотрите тексты на с. 96 и 106 и скажите:

Are both of them about open economies or is one of them about a closed economy, that is, an economy analyzed without its contacts with foreign countries? What makes you think so?

Unit 8
Taxes and Public Spending

Грамматика и лексика:

1. Конструкция «сложное подлежащее» при сказуемом: в форме страдательного залога

2. Значения слова result и сочетаний с ним

3. Значения слова most

4. Значения слов that и those

Задание на дом № 1

1. В разделе «Грамматика и словообразование» проработайте § 20 и 28.

2. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на конструкцию «сложное подлежащее».

The budget deficit is known to be the excess of government expenditure over government revenue.

Markets are said to bring together buyers and sellers of goods and services.

The massive influx (зд, включение) of women into the labour force is sometimes assumed to result in unemployment.

Alcohol and tobacco are usually believed to be products with a very inelastic demand.

An increase in the wage rate is expected to reduce the quantity of labour demanded.

A subsidy is known to be money or other resources provided by the government to support a business activity or a person.

Demand for imports is expected to rise when domestic income and output rise.

3. Выберите предложения, иллюстрирующие каждое значение that и those. Переведите их на русский язык.

Due to an increase in the price of one factor of production the firm reduces the input of the factor that has become more expensive.

An increase in the price of one factor will result in a reduction in the quantity of that factor demanded.

When we talk about «the national labour force», we think of all those people who are available for work within the nation.

If a person runs a private business, his work is partly that of an employer and partly that of a worker.

There are a lot of factors in agriculture that must be assumed as risks by farmers.

Students studying economics can expect higher earnings than those of students studying philosophy.

An increase in real wages will bring into labour force some more people while those already working will go on working as much as they work now.

Trade unions represent those people who work, not those who are unemployed.

At that price the quantity demanded exceeded the quantity supplied.

4. Переведите текст Taxes and Public Spending и отработайте его чтение.

5. В тексте

найдите конструкцию «сложное подлежащее»;

выделите предложения, в которых есть слово result, и переведите их;

выделите предложения со словом most и скажите, в каком значении оно употреблено.

TEXT

Taxes and Public Spending

In most economies government revenues come mainly from direct taxes on personal incomes and company profits as well as indirect taxes levied on purchase of goods and services such as value added tax (VAT) and sales tax. Since state provision of retirement pensions is included in government expenditure, pension contributions to state-run social security funds are included in revenue, too. Some small component of government spending is financed through government borrowing.

Government spending comprises spending on goods and services and transfer payments.

Governments mostly pay for public goods, that is, those goods that, even if they are consumed by one person, can still be consumed by other people. Clean air, national defence, health service are examples of public goods. Governments also provide such services as police, fire-fighting and the administration of justice[20]20
  administration of justice – отправление правосудия.


[Закрыть].

A transfer is a payment, usually by the government, for which no corresponding service is provided in return[21]21
  in return в ответ.


[Закрыть]. Examples are social security, retirement pensions, unemployment benefits and, in some countries, food stamps[22]22
  food stamps – продуктовые карточки, продовольственные талоны, по которым малоимущие граждане, как, например, в США, имеют право получать продукты питания в определенных магазинах, но не могут обменять их на деньги.


[Закрыть].

In most countries there are campaigns for cutting government spending. The reason for it is that high levels of government spending are believed to exhaust resources that can be used productively in the private sector. Lower incentives to work are also believed to result from social security payments and unemployment benefits.

Whereas spending on goods and services directly exhausts resources that can be used elsewhere, transfer payments do not reduce society's resources. They transfer purchasing power from one group of consumers, those paying taxes, to another group of consumers, those receiving transfer payments and subsidies.

Another reason for reducing government spending is to make room for[23]23
  to make room for – зд. создать условия для.


[Закрыть] tax cuts.

Government intervention manifests itself in tax policy which is different in different countries. In the United Kingdom the government takes nearly 40 percent of national income in taxes. Some governments take a larger share, others a smaller share.

The most widely used progressive tax structure is the one in which the average tax rate rises with a person's income level. As a result of progressive tax and transfer system most is taken from the rich[24]24
  the rich – богатые.


[Закрыть] and most is given to the poor[25]25
  the poor – бедные.


[Закрыть].

Rising tax rates initially increase tax revenue but eventually result in such large falls in the equilibrium quantity of the taxed commodity or activity that revenue starts to fall again. High tax rates are said to reduce the incentive to work. If half of all we earn goes to the government, we may prefer to work fewer hours a week and spend more time in the garden or watching television.

Cuts in tax rates will usually reduce the deadweight tax burden[26]26
  reduce the deadweight tax burden – снизить налоговое бремя.


[Закрыть] and reduce the amount of taxes raised but might increase eventual revenue.

If governments wish to reduce the deadweight tax burden and balance spending and revenue, they are supposed to reduce government spending in order to cut taxes.

Запомните!

result – результат

as a result – в результате

to result – происходить в результате

to result from – проистекать; обусловливаться чем-л.

to result in – приводить к чему-л.

* * *

most —1. самый (употребляется перед прилагательными после the);

2. весьма, крайне (перед прилагательными после а и перед наречиями);

3. всего; всех (перед наречиями);

4. большинство, большая часть (иерей существительными)

mostly – главным образом

* * *

that is – то есть

that is why – вот почему

so that – так, что(бы)

* * *

по – никакой (употребляется перед существительными)

Словарный минимум к тексту

mainly adv главным образом, в основном

direct tax – прямой налог

indirect tax – косвенный налог (налог на товары или услуги, а не на частное лицо или компанию)

levy v 1. облагать налогом; 2. собирать, взимать налоги

to levy a tax on smb – облагать кого-л. налогом, взимать налог с кого-л.

value added tax (VAT) – налог на добавленную стоимость (НДС)

sales tax – налог с оборота, налог на продажи (производители платят его, когда изделия считаются законченным товаром; оптовики – при продаже товара розничному продавцу; розничные продавцы – при продаже товара покупателям)

state и государство

retirement pension – пенсия за выслугу лет

contribution – взнос

a contribution to a fund взнос в фонд

social security fund – фонд социального обеспечения (государственный фонд для выплаты пособий по болезни и безработице, пенсий, пособий женщинам и детям)

borrowing – заимствование

borrow v (smth from smb) брать взаймы (что-л. у кого-л.), одалживать (что-л. у кого-л.)

comprise v (smth) включать (что-л.), состоять (из чего-л.)

transfer payment – переводной платеж (произведенный платеж, который не связан с оплатой товаров и услуг, например, пенсии, пособия по безработице, субсидии фермерам и т. д.)

pay (paid, paid) v (for smth) платить (за что-л.)

public goods – общественный товар, товар общественного пользования (благо, к которому одновременно имеют доступ все люди в данной экономике)

still cj всё же; тем не менее; однако

national defence – национальная оборона

unemployment benefit пособие по безработице

cut (cut, cut) v сокращать, снижать; уменьшать; урезывать

cut и сокращение, снижение; уменьшение

reason и (for smth) причина (чего-л.)

for some reasm – по какой-л. причине

exhaust v истощать, исчерпывать

productively adv производительно, продуктивно

productive adj производительный; производственный

whereas cj тогда как, в то время как

purchasing power – покупательная способность (стоимость денег, измеряемая в соответствии с количеством товара, который можно на них приобрести)

nearly adv почти; чуть не

share n доля, часть

tax rate – норма (ставка) налога (налогообложения) (налог, взимаемый на единицу облагаемой налогом суммы, выражаемый в процентном отношении, например, налог $5 на сумму в $100 значит, что ставка налога составляет 5 %)

initially adv с самого начала, вначале; первоначально

initial adj начальный, первоначальный; исходный

tax revenue – налоговые поступления, доходы от налогов

eventually adv в конечном счете, в итоге, в конце концов

eventual adj конечный, окончательный

to tax v (smth) облагать налогом (что-л.)

taxed commodity or activity продукция или деятельность, облагаемая налогом

syn. taxable adj подлежащий обложению налогом

raise v собирать, взимать (налоги, плату)

Аудиторная работа № 1

6. Назовите номера предложений, где употребляется конструкция «сложное подлежащее».

1. High unemployment rate in Europe is assumed to result from high unemployment benefits.

2. The private sector is normally considered to use resources more productively than the government.

3. Social security payments and unemployment benefits are known as transfer payments.

4. It is known that taxes raised at the national level, such as income tax or VAT (value added tax), are usually supplemented (дополнять) by local taxes.

5. More people have been found to choose to stay unemployed in countries with very high tax rates.

6. Chemical and steel workers know their earnings to increase more than those in textile and trade sectors.

7. The UK government is known to take nearly 40 percent of national income in taxes.

8. Macroeconomics is concerned with demand for goods by households or the total spending on machinery and buildings by firms.

7. Назовите номера предложений, в которых слово most имеет значение 1) большинство, большая часть и 2) весьма, крайне.

1. Most of public expenditure is financed through taxation and government borrowing.

2. In a situation of full employment, the supply of most goods and services will be inelastic.

3. Most often we look at the GNP per capita, or the average income in a country.

4. In 1986 there was a most sharp fall in world oil prices.

5. In most European countries and the USA work experience (трудовой стаж) is required to receive unemployment benefits. For this reason, more people have an incentive to go into employment at an earlier age.

6. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is considered to be one of the most influential multinational institutions stimulating international trade and maintaining balance-of-payments equilibrium.

7. The arts are a most important economic activity: their contribution to Britain's GDP was reported to be nearly £6,000 million in 1990.

8. As a result of the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century, most workers became employed in large factories.

9. With some groups of population, payments from social security funds may be a most important contribution to household incomes.

8. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на значение существительного result и глагола to result.

1. A tax rate over 45 percent is known to result in a reduction in the taxes raised.

2. If labour supply is inelastic, there will be an increase in wages as a result of improvements in technology.

3. When transfers (e.g., unemployment benefits, disability payments) are added to labour incomes and distributed profits, the result is personal income.

4. Due to the tax reform the taxed income was lowered and an increase in tax revenue resulted though it was not as big as the government had expected it to be.

5. Higher profit resulted from decreased transportation expenses.

9. Укажите, в каких предложениях that и those являются словами-заместителями. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Part of the profit goes to those who have provided the initial capital needed to start a business.

2. If markets allocate resources efficiently so that consumers' requirements are met at minimum cost, why should governments intervene in the economy at all?

3. To have on-farm and off-farm jobs at the same time is common practice in rural areas of the USA and Canada, especially among those working on small farms.

4. One reason why labour is a special commodity is that wages include the costs of investing in human capital, which brings in profit over a long period of time.

5. Unlike OPEC countries, oil-importing nations had to give up (отказаться от) much of their production in exchange for the imports that they required when prices for oil had risen.

6. Tax revenue following a reduction in taxable income and a rise of the number of taxpayers was expected to be much higher than that raised previously.

10. Выберите подходящее по смыслу слово из предлагаемых в скобках вариантов.

1. Public spending has to be financed (nearly / mostly) through taxation and government (borrowing / share).

2. Over the last 100 years real wages have increased five to fifteen times, (whereas / still) working time has been cut by nearly half.

3. Because unemployment often results in personal trauma, (unemployment benefits / retirement pensions) are said to be needed for psychological reasons.

4. Natural resources research in the USA in the 1930s was (nearly / initially) based on collecting information from various sources.

5. Due to a more (productive / required) capital and more know-how, wages in West Germany in the early 1980s were about three times as much as (those / that) in the East. (Whereas / as a result), many East Germans moved to the West.

6. Productive processes are (mostly / still) prohibited because they are dangerous to workers or to the environment.

7. Long-term unemployed workers, who gradually (постепенно) lose their human capital and contact with the active labour force, (mainly / eventually) become unable to fill any vacancy.

8. The (social security funds / reasons) for which people may leave labour force are as follows: retirement, illness, return to school, child care, work in a home garden, etc.

9. (Initially / eventually) minimum wages were introduced (productively / mainly) to protect young people from exploitation.

11. Переведите на русский язык предложения со словом по.

1. Transfer payments are the payments for which no direct economic service is provided in return (в ответ).

2. No workers means no output.

3. A mother may work very hard caring for her children but she receives no wages for her work.

4. Closed economy is an economic abstraction used to analyze a country with no relationship with the rest of the world.

5. Because no two jobs and no two persons are the same, to find a job is not always easy.

6. No economy relies entirely on command.

Задание на дом № 2

12. Измените порядок слов в предложениях, используя конструкцию «сложное подлежащее».

ОБРАЗЕЦ: Economists believe unemployment benefits to stop people from looking for a job. -4 Unemployment benefits are believed to stop people from looking for a job.

1. Economists think youth employment to be low in Germany because education is subsidized by the state.

2. Economists consider government spending cuts to be necessary in order to cut taxes.

3. Economists say economic system to be the particular way in which the economic activity in a country is organized.

4. Economists believe workers in poor countries to be much less productive as a result of bad working conditions.

5. Statistics say the 16 percent of world population living in the industrial countries receive nearly 80 percent of the world income.

6. We know public goods to be paid for out of general taxation.

7. We know a subvention to be money given by a government, a person or an organization to help somebody do something for the good of the public, for example, in education or sciences.

8. We consider a subsidy to be money given by a government to certain producers to help them to produce at a low price goods and services needed by the public.

13. а) Составьте предложения, употребляя глаголы в скобках в соответствующей форме.

1. 5th / John М. Keynes / in / June / Cambridge / 1883 / on (to be born)

2. Cambridge University / he / to / 1902 / in (to go)

3. Student / a / he / hard-working / most (to be)

4. 1915 / in / London / the / Treasury / in / he (join)

5. 1919 / in / he (to resign), with / Treaty of Versailles / the / he /because (to disillusion)

6. also / he / his / heavy / by / workload (to exhaust)

7. he / a / Cambridge / as / teacher / to (to return)

8. time / at / a / economist / he / that / brilliant (to think) (to be).

9. 1935 / in / book / his / best-known (to publish)

10. The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money / it (to ш//)

11. book / this / thinking / conventional (to go against), enemies / him / many / and (to make)

12. explaining / the / a / activity / Keynes / economic / level / of / theory / general (to provide)

13. aggregate demand / he / a depression / reduced (to think, to result from)

14. tax / the / he / cuts / situation (to believe, to improve)

15. initially / eventually / higher / population / in / higher / cuts / purchasing power / of / tax / aggregate demand / in / and (to result in)

16. as well / besides / higher / aggregate demand / spending / governments' (ся«) (аЛ/ to)

17. public / World War II / during / he / service (to resume)

18. role / an / the International Monetary Fund / in / the / 1944 / important / World Bank / he / in / and / establishing (to play)

19. 1946 / April / on / 21st / he (to die)

б) Кратко передайте содержание текста.

14. Вставьте пропущенные предлоги, где это необходимо.

1. Unemployment benefits are often paid a fund financed… taxes levied… firms.

2. Since you get the same share… national defence as everyone else, it will never be… your interest to pay… it… taxes.

3. Labour costs do not only comprise… wages: labour taxes (social security and contributions… pension fluids) are also included… them.

4. When the government levies a tax… a good, the price… that good will rise.

5. Most… the goods and services supplied… state… example, national defence and police protection cannot be consumed… one individual separately… the whole… society and the state makes individuals pay… them… taxation.

6. Indirect taxes vary… country… country and comprise… the VAT and excise taxes (… petrol, tobacco, alcohol).

7. Generous unemployment benefits paid… long periods are a good reason… people to remain unemployed longer.

8. Governments are known to borrow both… domestic sources and foreign ones such as the IMF.

9. Farmers can exhaust… land which will depreciate its value as well as improve… it raising… its value.

Аудиторная работа № 2

15. а) Ответьте на вопросы к тексту Taxes and Public Spending.

1. How is government spending financed?

2. What do governments pay for?

3. What are the three reasons for cutting government spending?

4. Which share of national income comes from taxes?

5. What are the characteristics of the progressive tax structure?

6. What may be the result of very high tax rates?

б) Подумайте и скажите:

1. Which campaigns to cut government spending in Russia do you know of? Were they successful? Why (not)?

2. How high are tax rates in Russia? How do they affect changes in taxed commodity and activity?

3. What other effects of high tax rates besides those given in the text Taxes and Public Spending can you think of?

16. Составьте предложения из двух подходящих по смыслу частей.

1. Government spending is

2. Spending and taxing,

3. Whereas a sales tax is raised only when a final good is sold to the consumer,

4. The governments in northern Europe often give out free a great share of gross output privately produced as public goods,

5. What is not paid as corporate taxes or saved by firms

6. Social security payments and unemployment benefits are

7. Every firm in Russia is required to allocate two percent of the amount to be paid out as wages

8. A state retirement pension in most European countries is

a. goes to households as employees, owners, or renters.

b. payable to women at the age of 60 and men at the age of 65.

c. the VAT is raised at different stages of the production process.

d. the sum of government purchases of goods and services and transfer payments.

e. as its contribution to the Fund of Obligatory Medical Insurance (страхование).

f. those comprise medical services, school, child care, public transport, national defence.

g. believed to reduce incentives to work since they contribute to income.

h. the government plays an essential role in allocating resources in the economy.

17. Составьте из приведенных ниже слов синонимические и антонимические пары.

to manufacture, considerable, to buy, advantage, almost, mostly, so that, great, home, expenditure, provided, unemployed, to need, to produce, to supply, to lead to, taxable, as, if, unproductive, efficient, unlike, to purchase, spending, to cut, to levy, initially, taxed, productive, employed, to require, disadvantage, to sell, like, to provide, since, in order to, mainly, nearly, to impose, to reduce, eventually, domestic, to give rise to

18. Вставьте в предложения пропущенные слова и выражения из словарного минимума к тексту Taxes and Public Spending и раздела «Запомните» в соответствующей форме.

1. The rise in oil prices raised the of the OPEC and reduced… of oil-importing countries such as Germany and Japan. The world economy, was producing more for the OPEC and less for Germany and Japan.

2. Taxes… on goods and services are known as… those… on income are called….

3. Due to a… capital use and more know-how, wages in West Germany were three times as much in… jobs as… in the East when the two Germanies united (объединяться), many East Germans moved (переехать) to the West.

4. In the 1980s British workers in the gas and electricity industries earned… £20 a week more than the national average.

5. The British national wealth… private assets (houses, factories, jewels) and national assets (the London Bridge, the paintings in the British Museum, the roads and telecommunications networks, and much more).

6… the nominal GNP is computed using the actual selling prices, the real GNP is computed using prices that existed in some predetermined base year. The making a distinction between the nominal and real GNP is to know the general price increase, or inflation.

7. Keynes thought classical economists to consider… in national output of the different factors of production rather than the forces determining the level of general economic activity.

8. Governments affect for whom output is produced through taxation and

9. Non-renewable resources are those… in the process of use.

19. Объедините все предложения в две группы:

1) с конструкцией «сложное дополнение» и 2) с конструкцией «сложное подлежащее». Переведите их на русский язык.

1. Prices are expected to change as either demand for or supply of the good varies.

2. The United Kingdom is known to rely on indirect taxes rather than direct taxes.

3. When an economy has no transactions with the rest of the world, we say it to be a closed economy.

4. Some economists do not believe exports to depend on domestic income.

5. The 19th-century economists said income from capital to be profit, whereas income from natural resources was said to be rent.

6. Imports are assumed to increase as much as domestic income does.

7. Economists consider higher tax rates to be able initially to bring in greater amounts of taxes raised but to result eventually in a fall in output level.

Задание на дом № 3

20. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Taxes of the firm to central government (corporation tax) plus taxes to local government (tax on the property the firm owned) were expected to come to £25,000 that year.

2. Part of the income of households is taxed by the government, which reduces the income share to be allocated to consumption expenditure.

3. Less efficient resource allocation is believed to result from raising the additional taxation revenue necessary to fund government programmes.

4. Aggressive US subsidization of production and exports of farm products was followed by that of other exporting countries, mainly the European Community and Canada, which resulted in competitive subsidization and price discrimination.

5. Levying taxes or borrowing, governments pay for the goods they buy and for the transfer payments they make.

6. In a mixed economy, the government is known to control a considerable share of output through taxation, transfer payments, and such services as defence and the police force.

7. Unemployment benefit systems are said to vary considerably from country to country.

8. The purpose of that book is to show that there are limitations in the economy that no person and no policy can overcome.

9. Both those who provide capital for a new business and those who run the business are known to bear the risk whereas workers of such businesses are not expected to bear any risk.

10. Social security programmes may comprise retirement pensions, invalidity benefits, child benefits paid for every child in a family, housing benefits for low income households, etc.

21. Переведите предложения на английский язык.

1. Доля налогов в цене товара не может зависеть от покупательной способности населения.

2. Считается, что дополнительный доход от государства является отрицательным стимулом для поисков работы с более высокой заработной платой.

3. Незначительная доля государственных расходов Японии обусловливается, как известно, чрезвычайно низким уровнем расходов на национальную оборону.