Текст книги "Глоссариум по цифровой экономике. 1500 терминов и определений"

SSH (Secure Shell) protocol is a secure network protocol for remote server management over the Internet.

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) Encryption Protocol is an encryption method that aims at protecting the connection between two parties over the Internet. The use of SSL has become standard, for example, in online banks and online stores, and now it’s making its way to traditional company websites in the wake of the changes Google made to its search engine10891089
  SSL Encryption Protocol – Text: electronic. – www.sofokus.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.sofokus.com/glossary-of-digital-business/#S


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State in reinforcement learning is the parameter values that describe the current configuration of the environment, which the agent uses to choose an action10901090
  .State – Text: electronic. – //developers.google.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/glossary/rl


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State-as-Platform is the concept of transforming public administration using the opportunities that new technologies give us. The target function of the implementation of the idea of «State-as-Platform» is the well-being of citizens and the promotion of economic growth based on the introduction of technology. The focus of the Platform deployment is the citizen in the new digital reality. The state should create conditions that will help a person to reveal his abilities, and create a comfortable and safe environment for his life and realization of his potential, as well as for the creation and implementation of innovative technologies.

Static model is a static structural view of a problem, which does not vary with time. A static model describes the static structure of the system being modeled, which is considered less likely to change than the functions of the system. In particular, a static model defines the classes in the system, the attributes of the classes, the relationships between classes, and the operations of each class10911091
  .Static model – Text: electronic. – www.cambridge.org (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/software-modeling-and-design/static-modeling/F4845E3B2ECA3D17525B832CE3C6153C


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Statistical Distribution is an empirical distribution function (in statistics) associated with the empirical measure of a sample. There are many kinds of statistical distributions, including the bell-shaped normal distribution. For example, IBM uses a statistical distribution in its products to determine how likely a certain value is. For example, if we have a chi-square value, we can use the chi-square distribution to determine how likely that chi-square value is10921092
  .Statistical Distribution – Text: electronic. – www.ibm.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL:https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/cognos-analytics/11.1.0?topic=terms-statistical-distribution


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Statistical modeling is the study of objects of knowledge on their statistical models10931093
  .Статистическое моделирование – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5


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Stigmergy is a mechanism of indirect coordination, through the environment, between agents or actions. The principle is that the trace left in the environment by an individual action stimulates the performance of a succeeding action by the same or different agent10941094
  Stigmergy – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmergy


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Streaming data is data that is continuously generated by different sources. Such data should be processed incrementally using stream processing techniques without having access to all of the data. In addition, it should be considered that concept drift may happen in the data which means that the properties of the stream may change over time. It is usually used in the context of big data in which it is generated by many different sources at high speed10951095
  Streaming data – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_data


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Strong artificial intelligence (Strong AI) is an applied artificial intelligence system, the technologies and algorithms of which can perform a significant number of tasks of data analysis, decision-making and implementation based on them, providing an imitation of human intellectual abilities and explainability of the solutions offered to a person, reproducing and sometimes exceeding a wide range of human cognitive and intellectual abilities, including the interpretation of external data and influences and the extraction of meanings from them, the use of acquired knowledge for learning, planning and decision-making under conditions of uncertainty and achieving specific goals and objectives through flexible adaptation to changing conditions and interaction with the external environment

Study is all the information collected at a single time or for a single purpose or by a single principal investigator. A study consists of one or more files10961096
  Study – Text: electronic. – www.umich.edu (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/cms/2042#S


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Stylesheet is a document that explains the rules governing how another document (or group of documents) should display. For HTML pages, stylesheets are written as Cascading Stylesheets (CSS); for XML files, we use XSLT10971097
  Stylesheet – Text: electronic. – www.umich.edu (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/cms/2042#S


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Subject-matter expert (SME) is a person who is an authority in a particular area or topic.

Subjects of critical information infrastructure – state bodies, state institutions, Russian legal entities and (or) individual entrepreneurs who own information systems, information and telecommunication networks, automated control systems operating in the healthcare sector, on the basis of ownership, lease or other legal grounds, science, transport, communications, energy, banking and other areas of the financial market, the fuel and energy complex, in the field of nuclear energy, defense, rocket and space, mining, metallurgical and chemical industries, Russian legal entities and (or) individual entrepreneurs who ensure the interaction of these systems or networks.

Supercomputing technologies are technologies that provide high-performance computing through the use of the principles of parallel and distributed data processing and high throughput.

Supervised learning is a branch of machine learning that deals with labeled data and direct feedback.

Supply Chain Management (SCM) – management concept and organizational strategy, which consists in an integrated approach to planning and managing the entire flow of information about raw materials, materials, products, services that arise and are transformed in the logistics and production processes of an enterprise, aimed at a measurable cumulative economic effect.

Supply Chain Management 4.0 is logistics approach that integrates and synchronizes the entire value chain extended through the participating companies, using digital technologies to build an interconnected, intelligent, and transparent system, with multidirectional communication in real-time that allows managing the flows and the automation itself, creating an autonomous network focused on the client, adaptable, intelligent, agile, and dynamic10981098
  Supply Chain Management 4.0 – Text: electronic. – www.igi-global.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/supply-chain-management-40/102807


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Sustaining Technologies are those that are incremental improvements on the existing technologies. A better mobile phone is an example of sustaining technologies10991099
  Sustaining Technologies – Text: electronic. – www.igi-global.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/sustaining-technologies/69014


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Symbolic artificial intelligence is the term for the collection of all methods in artificial intelligence research that are based on high-level symbolic (human-readable) representations of problems, logic and search. Symbolic AI used tools such as logic programming, production rules, semantic nets and frames, and it developed applications such as expert systems11001100
  .Symbolic artificial intelligence – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence#:~:text=In%20artificial%20intelligence%2C%20symbolic%20artificial,of%20problems%2C%20logic%20and%20search.


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Synthetic data is artificially generated information that can be used in place of real historic data to train AI models when actual data sets are lacking in quality, volume, or variety. Synthetic data can also be a vital tool for enterprise AI efforts when available data doesn’t meet business needs or could create privacy issues if used to train machine learning models, test software, or the like. According to Gartner analysts, by 2024, 60% of the data used for the development of AI and analytics solutions will be synthetically generated, up from 1% in 202111011101
  .Synthetic data – Text: electronic. – www.cio.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.cio.com/article/305902/what-is-synthetic-data-generated-data-to-help-your-ai-strategy.html


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Synthetic intelligence (Engineered intelligence) is an alternative/opposite term for artificial intelligence emphasizing that the intelligence of machines need not be an imitation or in any way artificial; it can be a genuine form of intelligence. Synthetic intelligence is a refinement of the concept of artificial intelligence (AI). Synthetic intelligence recognizes that although the capacity for software to reason may be manufactured, it is nonetheless real intelligence and not just an imitation of how human beings acquire and apply knowledge and skill. John Haugeland, who coined the term synthetic intelligence, uses the analogy of synthetic versus artificial diamonds to explain the concept. Unlike a simulated diamond, which is an artificial stone whose appearance mimics a diamond, a synthetic diamond is a true diamond with all a natural diamond’s properties, even though it is manufactured. Both engineered diamonds and engineered intelligence are real, and should be acknowledged as such. Traditional applications of artificial intelligence have often relied upon software that simply mimics human intelligence by replicating simple human thought processes. John Haugeland refers to this approach as GOFAI (good old-fashioned AI)11021102
  .Synthetic intelligence – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence


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  .Synthetic intelligence – Text: electronic. – www.techtarget.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/synthetic-intelligence-SI


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System file is a generic term for the native or internal storage format used by statistical software. Typically, a system file for one brand of software cannot be read by another brand of software or by the same brand on another hardware platform. Some software is capable of creating a portable file that can then be read by other software or on other platforms11041104
  System file – Text: electronic. – www.umich.edu (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/cms/2042#S


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System Integrator – accesses external and internal memory for data or peripheral registers upon request from the NMCore FPU processor core, as well as external and internal memory for commands upon request from IFU11051105
  .Микросхема интегральная 1879ВМ6Я. Руководство по эксплуатации. ЮФКВ.431282.016РЭ. – Text: electronic. – // www.module.ru. URL: https://www.module.ru/uploads/products/18796-20ceba697b.pdf


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«T»

Tag library is a set of documents that explain the correct way to mark up documents in XML for a specific DTD. A tag library goes beyond the basic rules of the DTD in that it provides pointers on what is considered «best practice»11061106
  Tag library – Text: electronic. – www.umich.edu (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/cms/2042#T


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Tags is fragments of text used to organize content, usually delimited in a set format. Example of XML tags:

<book> <chapter> <title> The Beginning </title> <intro> blah blah blah… </intro>

</chapter> </book>

In the example above, book, chapter, title, and intro are tags. They do not convey content, but rather the context of the content. The <and> are used to signify what is a tag and what is content11071107
  Tags – Text: electronic. – www.umich.edu (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/cms/2042#T


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Tailored Online Application Or Tailored App is a web app built for a specific purpose according to, for instance, a company’s wishes. A typical tailored online application would be a SaaS created to provide support to business11081108
  Tailored Online Application Or Tailored App – Text: electronic. – www.sofokus.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.sofokus.com/glossary-of-digital-business/#T


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Technological Revolution is a term for a situation, when in a short period of time a technology or a set of technologies replaces another technology or a set of technologies, it is called a technological revolution11091109
  Technological Revolution – Text: electronic. – www.igi-global.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/technological-revolution/29468


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Technological singularity is a hypothetical point in time at which technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unforeseeable changes to human civilization. According to the most popular version of the singularity hypothesis, called intelligence explosion, an upgradable intelligent system will eventually enter a «runaway reaction» of self-improvement cycles, each new and more intelligent generation appearing more and more rapidly, causing an «explosion» in intelligence and resulting in a powerful superintelligence that qualitatively far surpasses all human intelligence11101110
  .Technological singularity – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity


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Technological solution – a technology, a program for electronic computers (computer program), a database or a combination of them, as well as information on the most effective ways to use them (National Strategy for the Development of Artificial Intelligence for the period up to 2030).

Technologically independent software and services – software and services that can be used throughout the Russian Federation, are provided with warranty and technical support from Russian organizations, do not have forced updates and management from abroad, the modernization of which is carried out by Russian organizations on the territory of the Russian Federation and who do not carry out unauthorized transfer of information, including technological.

Technology trend awareness as a skill refers to being mindful of the technology that is recently becoming popular and is readily accepted in the market or industry. It also encompasses one’s ability to recognize and understand the usefulness of any such technology for the success of his business11111111
  Technology trend – Text: electronic. – www.cleverism.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL:https://www.cleverism.com/skills-and-tools/technology-trend-awareness/


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Telecommunications edge – computing performed mainly by mini-data centers located as close as possible to the customer, but owned and operated by the telecommunications company, as well as in the territory owned by the telecommunications company.

Telemedicine also referred to as telehealth or e-medicine, is the remote delivery of healthcare services, including exams and consultations, over the telecommunications infrastructure. Telemedicine allows healthcare providers to evaluate, diagnose and treat patients without the need for an in-person visit. Patients can communicate with physicians from their homes by using their own personal technology or by visiting a dedicated telehealth kiosk11121112
  Telemedicine – Text: electronic. – www.techtarget.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL:https://www.techtarget.com/searchhealthit/definition/telemedicine


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Telemedicine technologies – information technologies that provide remote interaction of medical workers with each other, with patients and (or) their legal representatives, identification and authentication of these persons, documenting their actions during consultations, consultations, remote medical monitoring of the patient’s health.

Temporal data clustering is to partition an unlabeled temporal data set into groups or clusters, where all the sequences grouped in the same cluster should be coherent or homogeneous. Although various algorithms have been developed to cluster different types of temporal data, they all try to modify the existing clustering algorithms for processing temporal information11131113
  .Temporal data clustering – Text: electronic. – www.sciencedirect.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/temporal-data


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Temporal data is fixed data showing a state over time.

Tendency to oligopoly and monopoly formation is the outcomes of intertwined and combined effects tend to lead to the formation of dominant market positions, also called digital monopoly or oligopoly. In this sense, digital platforms such as the GAFA can be considered as first movers – large companies that introduce a service or a product on an immature market, allowing that company to establish strong brand recognition and service loyalty11141114
  Tendency to oligopoly and monopoly formation – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly


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TensorFlow is an «open-source end-to-end machine learning platform» that helps data science develop and train machine learning (ML) models. This is especially useful for efficient rapid prototyping. Data scientists can write in any language they already know to train and deploy models in the cloud or locally. TensorFlow was originally developed by researchers and engineers working on the Google Brain team within the Google Machine Intelligence research organization for the purpose of conducting machine learning and deep neural network research.

Test data is data which has been specifically identified for use in tests, typically of a computer program11151115
  .Test data – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_data


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Test set – the subset of the dataset that you use to test your model after the model has gone through initial vetting by the validation set.

Testing – in the context of Supervised Machine Learning, the process of assessing the final performance of a model using hold-out data.

Testing Data – a subset of available data that a data scientist selected for the testing phase of the development of a model.

Tether (USDT) was one of the first and most popular of a group of so-called stablecoins – cryptocurrencies that aim to peg their market value to a currency or other external reference point to reduce volatility. Because most digital currencies, even major ones like Bitcoin, have experienced frequent periods of dramatic volatility, Tether and other stablecoins attempt to smooth out price fluctuations to attract users who may otherwise be cautious. Tether’s price is tied directly to the price of the U.S. dollar. The system allows users to more easily make transfers from other cryptocurrencies back to U.S. dollars in a more timely manner than actually converting to normal currency11161116
  Tether (USDT) – Text: electronic. – www.investopedia.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tether-usdt.asp


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Text file in computer usage, any file written in pure character format. Sometimes called a «plain text file»11171117
  Text file – Text: electronic. – www.umich.edu (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/cms/2042#T


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Text to speech (TTS) – the method of converting ASCII text to a speech waveform11181118
  .Text to speech (TTS) – Text: electronic. – www.encyclopedia.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/computing/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/text-speech


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The digital ecosystem of the Institute of the Commissioner for Human Rights is a digital service platform and services that are closely integrated with all levels of state power and administration, providing an effective interface for communications between the state and citizens and an integrated approach within a single information space in the field of protecting human and civil rights. The term was first introduced by Alexander Chesalov in his book Digital Ecosystem of the Ombudsman Institute: Concept, Technologies, Practice (2021).

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is the European Union’s new legal framework which governs the collection and processing of users’ personal data. The GDPR will take effect on May 25, 2018. The GDPR applies to all entities based in an EU country that process personal data, as well as all entities worldwide that process personal data belonging to EU residents11191119
  The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) – Text: electronic. – www.atinternet.com (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL:https://www.atinternet.com/en/glossary/gdpr/


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Theano library is a Python library used to compile, define, optimize, and evaluate mathematical expressions containing multidimensional arrays. It was developed by the Montreal Institute of Learning Algorithms (MILA) at the University of Montreal and released in 2007. This is an open source library under the BSD license. The library is built on top of NumPy and has a similar interface. Along with the processor, it allows you to use a graphics processor to accelerate computing. Theano makes significant contributions to large-scale scientific computing and related research and is supported by a dedicated team of 13 developers.

Theoretical computer science – a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing and includes the theory of computation11201120
  .Theoretical computer science – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science


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Theory of computation – in theoretical computer science and mathematics, the theory of computation is the branch that deals with how efficiently problems can be solved on a model of computation, using an algorithm. The field is divided into three major branches: automata theory and languages, computability theory, and computational complexity theory, which are linked by the question: «What are the fundamental capabilities and limitations of computers?»11211121
  .Theory of computation – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_computation


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Three main components of the digital economy concept:

– E-business infrastructure (hardware, software, telecom, networks, human capital, etc.),

– E-business (how business is conducted, any process that an organization conducts over computer-mediated networks),

– E-commerce (transfer of goods sold online)11221122
  Three main components of the digital economy concept – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_economy


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Time complexity – the computational complexity that describes the amount of time it takes to run an algorithm. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, supposing that each elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus, the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm are taken to differ by at most a constant factor11231123
  .Time complexity – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_complexity


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Time efficiency – in real life, it is important to minimize both the model training time and the agent’s reaction time to incoming information and the time to solve the problem.

Time Series – a sequence of data points recorded at specific times and indexed accordingly to their order of occurrence.

Time series analysis – a subfield of machine learning and statistics that analyzes temporal data. Many types of machine learning problems require time series analysis, including classification, clustering, forecasting, and anomaly detection. For example, you could use time series analysis to forecast the future sales of winter coats by month based on historical sales data.

Time series are observations of a variable made over time. Many economic studies, such as IMF’s International Financial Statistics, are time series data files. Time series, of a sort, can also be constructed from a cross-sectional study if the same questions are asked more than once over time11241124
  Time series – Text: electronic. – www.umich.edu (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/cms/2042#T


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Topic Modeling – a category of Unsupervised Machine Learning algorithms that uses clustering to find hidden structures in textual data, and interpret them as topics. In statistics and natural language processing, a topic model is a type of statistical model for discovering the abstract «topics» that occur in a collection of documents. Topic modeling is a frequently used text-mining tool for discovery of hidden semantic structures in a text body11251125
  .Topic Modeling – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic_model#:~:text=In%20statistics%20and%20natural%20language,structures%20in%20a%20text%20body.


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Trade secret is a regime of confidentiality of information that allows its owner, under existing or possible circumstances, to increase income, avoid unjustified expenses, maintain a position in the market for goods, works, services, or obtain other commercial benefits.

Transition system (in theoretical computer science) is a concept used in the study of computation. It is used to describe the potential behavior of discrete systems. It consists of states and transitions between states, which may be labeled with labels chosen from a set; the same label may appear on more than one transition. If the label set is a singleton, the system is essentially unlabeled, and a simpler definition that omits the labels is possible11261126
  .Transition system – Text: electronic. – //en.wikipedia.org. (date of request: 07.07.2022) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_system#:~:text=In%20theoretical%20computer%20science%2C%20a,potential%20behavior%20of%20discrete%20systems.


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